
Qass. 
Book. 



'.«*'«* 



X \^S 



■A(o 



^^-<ni>M 



1- 



fif^ 




C,'.. 



THE PROFESSION 

OF 

HOME MAKING 

A CONDENSED HOME-STUDY COUESE 

ON DOMESTIC SCIENCE; THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE 

MOST RECENT ADVANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES 

TO THE HOME INDUSTRIES 

PREPARED BY TEACHERS OF 
RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY 



FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES; 

DIETITIANS, PROFESSIONAL HOME AIANAGERS, AND ALL 

INTERESTED IN HOME, HEALTH AND ECONOMY 




CHICAGO 

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 

1911 










COPYEIGHT 1911 
BY 

)ME Economics Associatio?? 






INTRODUCTION 



HOME-MAKING as now taught in many schools 
and colleges takes rank as a profession as truly 
as any occupation. It is the greatest of the pro- 
fessions — greatest in numbers and greatest in its effect 
on the individual and on society. The profession of 
home-making has added as much to every day house- 
keeping as scientific farming has to that of past genera- 
tions. 

The correspondence courses of the American School 
of Home Economics were prepared to carry this new 
profession to everyone in reach of the mails. With the 
co-operation of prominent teachers, the best courses in 
home economics and domestic science were condensed 
into clear and practical lessons, especially adapted to 
home study. The enrollment of over 7,000 members 
in the School and their appreciation of great practical 
benefits and interest of the course indicates the wide 
demand for such teaching and its value. 

The present volume is made up of some of the most 
popular and helpful lessons of the Course, including 
the regular ''Test Questions" and Programs for Class 
Study. It is a comprehensive reference work for every 
day use, but it is much n^ore — it is a carefully prepared 
home-study Course, put into book form after being 
tested by use, revised and supplemented. It is pub- 
lished at a popular price to enable progressive home- 
makers to manage their homes more easily, to save on 
household expenses, to keep up to date and to make the 
daily routine of housekeeping an interesting profession 
instead of deadening drudgery. That it may serve as 
an inspiration to many and be the means of extending 
even more widely this movement for the conservation 
and improvement of the American home is the hope of 
the School. 

American School of Home Economics. 
3 



CONTENTS * 



CHEMISTEY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

P.Y Margaret E. Dodd, S. B. 

Graduate of IMassachusetts Institute of Technology 



Water ..... 

The Atmosphere 

co.mbustiox .... 

Fuels .... 

Food as Fuel 

Sugars and Starches 

Digestion of Sugar and Starch 

Chemistry of Cooking 

Fats as Food 

Nitrogenous Foods 

Effects of Cooking 

Mineral Matter in Food 

Decay ..... 

Test Questions 

Cleaning .... 

Chemistry of the Laundry 

Removal of Stains 

Bleaching 

Cleaning \\^ood'»vork 

Cleaning Metals 

Test Questions 

Chemistry of Baking Powder 

Chemistry of Lighting 

Chemistry and Electricity 

Chemistry of Plant Life 

The Housekeepers' Laboratory 

Test Questions 

Notes on Laundry Work 

IIo.ME Soap ^L\king 

Dishwashing . . . 

Bread Making 

lio.ME Made Baking Powdf.u 

Composition of Gas 

Spontaneou s Com bu stion 

Bibliography 

Program of Class Study 



Page 


oo 

28 

.31 

37 

40 

4.3 

4.5 

,51 

.53 

59 

61 

62 

64 

67 

78 

87 

94 

98 

99 

103 

10.5 

108 

121 

124 

129 

139 

141 

149 

149 

1.50 

157 

158 

160 

103 

165 



* Note : For page numhcr sec foot of poyrs. 



PEINCIPLES OF COOKEKY 



By Anna Bakuows 



Teacber of Cookery. Teachers' College, Columbia University 



Fire in Cooking . 

\Yateu in Cooking 

Ice and Ice Chests 

Preparation and Preserving oe F 

Choice of Food 

Milk and Its Products 

Cooking of Butter 

Cooking op Cheese 

Test Questions 

Cooking of Eggs 

Cooking of Meat, Fish, and Poui; 

Cooking of Vegetables 

Cooking of Grains 

Test Questions 

Bread and Other Doughs 

Pastry and Cake 

Cooking of Doughs 

Form of Serving 

Flavor .... 

Food for a Day 

Bibliography 

Test Questions 

Comparative Value of Fuels 

FiRELESs Cookers 

Co-operative Cooking 

Kitchen Appliances 

The Housekeeper's Library 

Card Catalo(j of Foods 

Cookery a Fine Art 

Cake Making 

Menu Making 

Economy in the Use of Fats 

Menus for Special Occasions 

Program for Class Study 



)ODS 



Page 
177 
192 
204 
208 
215 
218 
224 
229 
2.'U 
2.^^ 
247 
263 
274 
278 
281 
296 
301 
304 
312 
315 
322 
323 
325 
330 
336 
337 
340 
342 
343 
345 
346 
HoQ 
358 
359 



* Note : For inuje niimhcv see foot of pages. 



Fki:i: Hand Cooking 

WkKJUTS AM) MlCASURKS 

Effkct of IIhat on Food :\lATi:Ki\r,s 
temrfhatunk and time of cookincj 
Thickening and Leavening Agents . 
Shortening ...... 

Flavoring ...... 

Fundamental IlECirEs 



Page 
8G7 
r.C)9 
;370 
37;i 
374 
37r» 

G-400 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

Bv Bertha M. Terrill, M. A. 

Professor of Home Economics, University of XCimont 

IIOUSEKEEriNG A PR0FESSK)N ...... 405 

DiVI.SION OF HO.ME ENI'ENDITIRES ..... 409 

Rent 421 

Operating Expenses ....... 426 

Food Expenses 430 

Clothing Expenses ....... 436 

Higher Life ......... 437 

Household Accounts ....... 442 

Bank Account and Banking ...... 460 

Test Questions ........ 440 

The Organization and LJivision of Lai'.or .... 47."> 

Domestic Service ........ 479 

Buying Supplies ......... 499 

Kitchen and Laundry Furnish inos .... 504 

Table and Bep Linen . . . . . . . .516 

Carpets and Rugs 522 

Test Questions . ... . . . . . . 525 

Marketing — Cuts of Meat ...... 527 

Poultry 551 

Fish 553 

Vegetables .......... 556 

Butter, Milk and Vah;s ....... 559 

Dry Groceries ......... 561 

Bibliography ......... 56.3 

Test Questions ......... 564 

Programs for Class Study ...... 566 

Cost of Ho.me and Stea.m Laundry Work .... 570 

Experience in Division of Income .... 571 

Food Economy ......... 577 

The Domestic Service Prop.le.m 583 

Help by the Holr ........ 586 

Systems of House Work ...... 590 

Value of the Individual IIu.me ...... 592 



* Xo(( 



For jKKjc iiuinbcr .see foot of pages. 
6 



HOME CAEE FOE THE SICK 

By Amy E. Poi-e 

Teacher of Nursins. Presbyterian Hospital 
New Yorix City 



Symptoms of Disease .... 

Choice^ Furxishixg, and Care of the Sick- 
Care OF Patient; Making and Changing Bi 
Lifting and Handling the Patient 
Convalescence ..... 

Care of the Hair, Mouth, Teeth 
Baths and Bathing .... 

SiCK-Roo.M Methods .... 

The Giving of Medicine 
Purgative, Enemata, Douches 
Poultices and Fomentations 
Test Questions .... 

Contagion; Nursing in Contagious Diseasi 
Disinfection of the Room, Contents, Etc. 
Precaution in Contagious Diseases 
Surgical Operations at Home . 
Obstetrics ...... 

Care of the Child ..... 

Food for the Sick — Recipes 
Emergencies ; First Aid to the Injured 
Foreign Bodies in Eye, Ear, Nose, Throat 
Poisons and Antidotes .... 

Bandages and Bandaging ... 
Test Questions ...... 

Program for Class Study . . . , 
Index 



Room 
;d 



Pa-e 
504 
GOl 
605 
612 
621 
624 
626 
6.3:5 
640 
646 
651 
655 
657 
664 
666 
667 
674 
685 
687 
696 
706 
707 
708 
716 
718 
721-736 



* Note: For ptujc number see foot of pages. 



t Mtium — 



'T^HAT right living should be the fourth "R" in edu- 
cation. 

' I ^HAT home -making should be regarded as a pro- 
fession. 

' I ^HAT health is the duty and business of the individual; 
illness of the physician. 

' I ^HAT most illness results from carelessness, ignorance, or 
intemperance of some kind. 

' I ^HAT as many lives are cut short by unhealthful food and 
diet as through strong drink. 

npHAT on the home foundation is built all that is good 
in state or individual. 

' I ^HAT the upbringing of children demands more study 
than the raising of chickens. 

npHAT the spending of money is as important as the 
earning of the money. 

' I ^HAT economy does not mean spending a small amount, 
but in getting the largest returns for the money expended. 

' I ^HAT the home-maker should be as alert to make pro- 
gress in her life-w^ork as the business or professional 
man. 

''T^HAT the most profitable, the most interesting study for 
women is the home, for in it center all the issues of 
life. 

npHAT the study of home problems may be made of no 
less cultural value than the study of art or literature and 
of much more immediate value. 

— American School of Home Economics 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

A Day's Chemistry 



BEING an outline of llie simplest and most evi- 
dent cliemical changes suggested by a day's 
work at home and a description of the various chemical 
substances of interest to the housewife. 

WATER 

The morning bath will introduce us agreeably to the 
wonderful chemical substance, water, and with this o^c^currence 
substance v\^e will begin our study of a day's chniiistry. 
The water for the house may come from the town sup- 
ply, from wells, cisterns, or springs. It may be 
"surface water," from pond, lake, or stream, or it may 
be "ground water," from wells or deep springs. Cis- 
tern" water is, of course, rain water. Water is present 
in many substances where wc might not suspect it. 
All living things contain a large percentage of water. 
Of an athlete weighing 150 pounds, all but about 42 
pounds is water. Wood, meat, vegetables, fruit, when 
dried, weigh from 50 to 98 per cent less. ]\Iany natural 
and artificial substances owe their crystalline form to 

Copyright, 1904, 1905, 1907. 1910, by Home Economic Association. 



CHEMISTRY OP THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Nat lira J 

Water 



Distilled 
Water 



water and when heated, give off this "water of crystal- 
Hzation" and crumble to powder. Common washing 
soda shows this effect, when exposed to the air, and 
soon gives off so much water that its crystalHne char- 
acter is lost. 

All water found in nature is more or less impure, 
that is, it contains substances in solution. It dissolves 
air and takes substances from the soil and rocks over 
which it runs. Often it comes in contact with animal 
and vegetable substances and dissolves something from 
them. Near dwellings the water in streams, ponds, 
and wells is very likely to become contaminated. De- 
caying substances give rise to materials easily dissolved 
in water, which may travel for a considerable distance 
under ground, so that the drainage from the house or 
barn is frequently carried to near-by streams or wells, 
making their waters quite unfit to drink. Fig. i. 

The following experiment will illustrate that air is 
dissolved in water. 

Experiment. Place a tumbler of fresh well-water or 
tap-water in a warm place. After a time, bubbles will 
be seen collecting on the sides of the glass. This is 
air which was dissolved in the water. As the water 
grows warm, it cannot hold so much air in solution and 
some of it separates. 

Most of the impurities In water are less easily con- 
verted into vapor than the water itself; hence, when 
the water is boiled, they stay behind while the water 
''boils away". Water from almost any source can be 
made pure and clear by distillation. Distilled water is 



10 



WATER. 3 

prepared in an apparatus known as a still. See Fig. 2. 
A still consists of a boiler, A, and a condenser. In 
the condenser, a coil of tube, D, usually made of pure 




FIG. 1. WELL, CONTAMINATED BY HOUSE DRAINAGE. 

tin, is surrounded by cold water which continually 
runs through the apparatus. The steam, admitted at 
the upper end of the coil, is condensed by the low tem- 
perature and distilled water is collected at the lower 



11 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Rain 

Water 



end. In the laboratory, distilled water is often made 
in the glass apparatus shown in Fig. 3. 

Distilled water has a flat taste, because air and other 
dissolved substances which give water its taste have 
been removed. It will again dissolve the air on being 
poured several times from one vessel into another. 

Rain is water which has been evaporated from the, 
surfaces of natural bodies of water, oceans, lakes, 
and from the land, and is practically free from mineral 
matter, but contains dissolved gases. 

The vapor, cooled at the low temperatures of the 
upper levels of air, falls as rain. The first fall of any 




FIG. 2. A STILL. 
A, Goosenock; B, Boiler; I), Coiidonsing Coil. 

shower is mixed with impurities \vhich have been 
washed from the air. Among these may be carbon 
dioxide, ammonia, and carbon in the form of soot and 
creosote. It is these last impurities whicli cause the 



12 



WATER. 5 

almost indelible stain left when ram water stands upon 
window-sills or other finished woods. 




Fig. 3. Making Distilled Water in the Laboratory. 

Water is a nearly universal solvent. It dissolves 
more substances and these in larger quantities than any 
other liquid. At a given temperature, water will dis- 
solve only a certain proportion of the various salts 
and other soluble substances. When the water will 
take up no more, the solution is said to be saturated. 
Increasing the temperature generally increases the dis- 
solving power of water for solids and liquids. The 
reverse is usually true for gases. 

When a saturated solution of a solid is cooled, crys- 
tals are frequently formed, niany having beautiful 
shapes. Examples are shown in Fig. 4. 

Experiment. In an earthen- ware or enameled dish 
dissolve as much alum as possible in a little boiling 
water. Pour the solution into a shallow dish or sau- 



oolubility 



13 



6 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



cer, and set it away for a day or more where it will be 
undisturbed. Beautiful, clear, six-sided crystals wil) 
form in the dish. If strings are hung in the solution, the 
crystals will form upon them. Rock candy crystals 
are made from cane sugar syrup in this way. 

The experiment may be repeated, using washing 
soda instead of alum. 



/: 


/ 




7 






fsTUDi 




Effect of 

Water on 

Metals 



FIG. 4. SHAPES OF CRYSTALS. 

Silver, copper, and tin are not perceptibly dissolved 
in pure water, but when combined with acid substances, 
the compounds formed are soluble. These compounds 
of a metal with an acid are called salts. The salts of 
copper, zinc, and lead are poisonous. Copper, brass, 
(an alloy of copper with zinc) tin, solder, and iron 
are metals easily afifected by acids, so that cooking 
utensils made of these materials should not be used 
with acid substances like lemon and vinegar. 



14 



WATER. 



Lead pipes are much used in plumbing, and as a 
rule no evil results follow, since ordinary drinking 
water acts under most circumstances only very slight- 
ly upon lead. The pipes are soon coated with a layer 
of carbonate and sulphate of lead, which is insoluble 
and prevents any further action. Water from new 
lead pipes, or pipes not kept constantly full, or from 
a hot-water system in which lead is used, should never 
be used for drinking or cooking because of danger 
from poisoning. Pure distilled water, or rain water, 
affects lead more than ordinary ground water. 

Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide gas 
from the air and soaking into the soil often comes in 
contact with magnesia in the rocks and with limestone. 



Water 
gas will 



contammg 



WiLte-r 



Try?/l ^.^/rr^ 



this 
dissolve these 
mineral substances mak- 
ing what is known as 
''hard" water, a very dif- 
ferent substance from the 
original rain water 
which is "soft." This 
subject will be dis- 
cussed when the chem- 
istry of the laundry is 
explained. ^^^- ^- ^ water filter. 

Ordinary water for drinking purposes is often filtered. 
Filtration v/ill remove small particles suspended in the 
water, but has no effect on substances dissolved in it. 

The small charcoal or sand filters will not remove 



'^n '^''■fcc''^w*'tc^ 



Effect of 
Water 
on Lead 



Hard 
Water 



Leiyer of qr&vel 

Layer of cK&rcoal 
L&.yev- of gr*vel 



Filtering 



15 



8 CHEMISTRY Of THE HOUSEHOLD. 

the minute living- forms called micro-organisms or 
germs, some of which are the cause of disease. A filter 
of porous stone or procelain, in which the w^ater filters 
slowly, is more effective. A good filter is shown in 
Figure 5. 

Water which has strained or filtered through several 
feet of earth is often much improved, but the earth 
filter itself may become contaminated after a while and 
more harm tlian good result. A thick layer of sand 
and rock, however, removes germs effectively, and con- 
sequently water from deep driven wells is safe. 
Composition Water was long considered an elementary or simple 

substance, but towards the end of the last century it 
was found to consist of two quite different substances 
so intimately joined together that the identity of each 
is lost. If we pass an electric current through water 
in the proper way, we see a gas rising in bubbles from 
the end of the wire by which the current enters and a 
like appearance at the wire by which the current leaves 
the water. The two gases have evidently, come from 
the water and are the substances out of which it is 
made for the w^ater begins to disappear. By placing an 
inverted glass filled with w^ater over each wire, the 
gases are easily collected. See Fig. 6. When one 
bottle is ///// of gas, the other will be only half full : and 
on decomposing the whole of a given amount of water, 
this proportion holds true. 

If we test these gases, we shall find them quite dif- 
ferent. The bottle which is full contains a gas called 



16 



WATER. 9 

hydrogen. There is evidently twice as much of this by 
volume in water as of the other gas which is called 
oxygen. These two gases were tied together by what 
is known as chemical force, but the electric current 
separated them and gave us an opportunity to make 
the acquaintance of each by itself. We would hardly 
suppose this clear, colorless liquid to be composed of 
such material. On decomposing pure water from any 



rs 



HYDROGEN 




Fig. 6. Decomposing Water Into Oiygen and Hy- 
drogen Gas. 



source, the proportion of oxygen to hydrogen is always 
the same, and in fact, all chemical compounds have a 
certain composition which never varies under any con- 
dition. 

The name hydrogen comes from two Greek words, 
meaning water and to produce. Hydrogen is interest- 
ing as being the lightest common substance. It is an 
invisible gas like air, but unlike air will burn. If a 



Hydrofeii 



17 



10 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



lighted candle be placed in a bottle of hydrogen, the 
flame will be at once extinguished, though the hydro- 
gen will take fire at the mouth of the bottle. Fig. 7. 
Hydrogen will unite with other substances besides 
oxygen : that is, it will join with other substances by 
chemical force. It forms a part of most animal and 
vegetable substances. 





Tig. 7. 



Hydrogen Will Burn 
in Air. 



Fiff. 8. A Candle 
Burns Vigorously in 
Oxygen. 



Oxygen Oxygcu, as wcll as hydrogen, is a tasteless, color- 

less, odorless gas. The weight of a given volume is 
sixteen times that of the same volume of hydrogen. 
It is very abundant and the most important substance 
to mankind. Should we test this gas with a lighted 
candle, as we did the hydrogen, we would find that 
the oxygen would not give a flame, but that the candle 
would burn far more vigorously. Fig. 8. 



18 



WATER. 



II 



When substances burn in oxygen they really unite 
jvith it chemically, forming new substances called 
oxides. Water is hydrogen united with oxygen and its 
chemical name might therefore be oxide of hydrogen. 

When water is heated in an open vessel, evapora- 
tion from the surface of the liquid is more rapid as 
the temperature increases. Soon vapor is formed on 
the sides and bottom of the vessel and bubbles begin to 
rise which are at once condensed by the cooler parts 
of the liquid, thus making the familiar ''singing" noise. 
Finally the liquid becomes so hot that the bubbles reach 
the surface without condensing, and then the water 
boils and goes ofif into the air as steam, an invisible 
gas. This occupies the small space between the spout 
of the tea-kettle and the cloud of vapor which is com- 
monly called steam, but is really finely divided drops 
of water. A cubic inch of water makes about a cubic 
foot of steam. 

The temperature at which pure water begins to boil 
at sea level is 212" Fahrenheit (or 100° Centigrade) 
and this temperature remains the same while the boil- 
ing continues. Increasing the heat simply increases 
the violence of the boiling. The steam given off is of 
the same temperature as the boiling liquid. Most pure 
liquids have a definite boiling point ; ether boils at 
100° F, alcohol at 173° F, turpentine at 315° F. 

When the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface 
of the liquid is less than at the sea level, as on a moun- 
tain, where there is not so much air above pressing 
down on the surface of the liquid, the temperature of 



Effect of 

Heating 

Water 



Boiling 
Point 



19 



12 CHBMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

boiling is less. For example, the boiling point of water 
in Denver, Colorado, is about 202° F, and on the top 
of some of the mountains in the Himalayas, 180° F. 
People living in high mountain regions have difficulty 
in cooking with water or steam. 

Increasing the pressure on the surface of the liquid, 
on the other hand, raises the boiling point. This is 
seen when water boils in a confined space, as in a steam 
boiler. Under five pounds pressure of steam, water 
boils at about 22^° F and at 100 pounds pressure, at 

337° F. 

An increase in the boiling point of water is caused 
by dissolved substances. A very strong solution of 
common salt boils at about 226° F, and a solution of 
sugar — syrup or molasses — boils at an increasing tem- 
perature as the water is lost. 

The temperature at which a syrup boils, is a meas- 
ure of its thickness or density. In many modern cook- 
ery books temperature tests are given for boiling sugar 
in making confections, which vary from 215° for 
a thin syrup, up to 350° for caramel. In making maple 
sugar a "sugar thermometer" is often placed in the 
boiling syrup. At a given temperature, which is high- 
er for sugar cakes than for soft sugar, the proper con- 
centration is reached. 
lAtent Considerable heat is absorbed by the process of boil- 
ing. It requires 966 times as much heat to change a 
pound of water at the boiling point into steam as it 
does to raise it one degree Fahrenheit. The heat 



Heat 



20 



WATER. 



13 



which is used to change the state of the water without 
changing its temperature is called latent heat from the 
Latin word, meaning hidden. The "hidden heat" is 
given out again when the steam is condensed. This 
same quantity of heat is absorbed when the water 
evaporates slowly ; hence the great cooling effect of 
large bodies of water. 

When water is cooled it shrinks slightly until the 
temperature of 39° F is reached. On further cool- 
ing it to the freezing point, 32° F (or 0° Centigrade) 
it increases in volume, so that ice takes up more space 
than the same weight of water and consequently floats. 
If this were not so, la.kes and streams would freeze 
solid in winter and it is doubtful if they would melt 
completely during the summer in the northern part 
of the United States. 

To melt ice, 144 times as much heat is required to 
change the ice at 32° F into water at 32° F, as to raise 
the temperature of the same quantity of water one 
degree Fahrenheit. This is the latent heat of melting 
and the same amount of heat is given out when water 
freezes. Water thus serves as the great temperature 
regulator for the earth, for by evaporating, much of 
the heat of summer is absorbed, and before freezing, 
a great deal of heat must be given out and absorbed. 

Water has a much greater capacity of absorbing heat 
than any other common substance. For example, one 
pound of water will absorb ten times as much heat in 
being raised one degree as a pound of iron. The great- 



Freezing 



Heat 
Absorption 



21 



14 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

er absorbing capacity of water for heat explains why a 
kettle of fat heats up so much faster than the same 
weight of water under like conditions ; for the fat re- 
quires only one-third as much heat to raise it, say, to 
200° F, as does the water. 

THE ATMOSPHERE 

When we leave the sleeping room, we open the win- 
dows to admit air. We may with advantage treat 
our lungs to an air bath by standing at the open win- 
dow or by going out of doors for a few minutes to take 
in five or ten deep breaths. Next, perhaps, we shall 
use drafts of air to help us make a fire in the range 
or in a fire place. 

Air is a real substance. It can be weighed. The air 
in a room 15 feet by 20 feet by 10 feet high weighs 
210 pounds, and would fill ten ordinary water pails 
if liquified. Air will expand and may be compressed 
like other gases and it has been liquefied by intense cold 
and pressure. It requires considerable force to move 
it. When a bottle is full of air, no more can be poured 
in. Our houses are full of air all the time. It pervades 
all things — the cells and tissues of our bodies are full 
of air. 

Wood and some metals even contain a little. In 
breathing we take a little from the room, but it is im- 
mediately replaced by expired air, which is impure. 
Were there no exits for this air, no pure air could enter 
the house, and we should die of slow suffocation. The 



22 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 15 

better built the house the quicker the suffocation. Fortu- 
nately no house is air tight. Air does pass out through 
the walls and cracks, and comes in around doors and 
windows, but unless there is a great difference in the 
temperature indoors and out, this fresh air is neither 
sufficient to replace the bad air nor to dilute it beyond 
harm. Therefore in ordinary weather, the air of all 
rooms must be often and completely changed either by 
special systems of ventilation or by intelligent action 
in the opening of doors and windows. 

The atmosphere surrounds the earth to a depth of 
fifty miles or more. The effect of gravity of the earth 
on this mass is to produce a pressure or weight of air 
on all things. This pressure is about fifteen pounds on 
each square inch, but we do not notice it, for the pres- 
sure is the same on all sides of us and the internal 
pressure in the cells of our bodies balances the external 
pressure of the atmosphere. 

If it were not for the pressure of the air, we could 
not drink lemonade through a straw or pump a pail of 
water. When we exhaust part of the air by suction, 
we remove part of the pressure over the liquid in the 
straw and the air pressure on the surface in the glass 
forces the liquid up the straw. The same principle 
applies in a pump — the air is partially taken off the top 
of the water in the pipe, and then the pressure outside 
forces the water up in the pipe and by a proper valve 
arrangement, it is made to run into the pail. See 
Fig. 9. 



Air 
Fressiirs 



23 



i6 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Composition 
of Air 



Fitrogen 



The pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level is 
sufficient to force water up into a vacuum about 34 
feet vertically; but owing to mechanical imperfections 
of pumps, the practical limit is 2^ or 28 feet rise be- 
tween the surface of the water and the valve of the 
pump. It is customary to use a force pump if water 
is to be raised to a height above this. Fig. 10. 

Unlike water, air is not the result of a chemical union 
of two unlike simple gases. Nevertheless, air contains 
more than one substance. It is made up chiefly of two 
gases simply mixed together, and each exhibits its 
own characteristics to some extent. 

Pure air consists of oxygen, which we have found 
constitutes one-third of water, and of nitrogen (and 
argon). The oxygen forms about a fifth and the 
nitrogen four-fifths of the air. Besides these, several 
other gases are found in small but varying quantities. 

To the oxygen gas is due the power of air to support 
combustion (fire) and life. Oxygen unites chemically 
with most other substances, and were the air all oxy- 
gen, the combustible part of the earth would soon be 
consumed by its own fires. Fortunately four-fifths of 
the air is a gas that has little power of combination and 
this nitrogen serves to dilute the oxygen and to weaken 
its force, much as water would dilute and weaken a 
strong and powerful chemical. 

The most marked characteristic of nitrogen is its 
sluggishness or inertness. Nitrogen, like oxygen, is 
a tasteless, odorless, colorless gas. It is fourteen 



24 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



17 



times as heavy as hydrogen. Though nitrogen from 
the air unites with other elements with difficulty, it 
is found in all living tissues, both animal and vegetable, 
and when these decompose the familiar substance, am- 
monia, is formed. This is a compound of hydrogen 
and nitrogen. 





Fig. 9. Suction Pump. 



Fi£ 



10. Force Pump. 



Carbon dioxide is always present in the atmosphere. 
This is one of the countless combinations of carbon, 
the element present in all animal and vegetable mate- 
rials. Carbon is nearly pure in the form of charcoal. 
Soot, graphite or the black lead of lead pencils, and the 



Carbon 



25 



Carbon 



i8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, 

diamond are other forms. Carbon unites very readily 
with oxygen and the gas formed by their chemical 
union is called carbon dioxide because it contains two 

Dioxide parts of oxygen to one of carbon. Wood, coal, gas — 
almost everything that will burn in the air — and even 
our own bodies contain carbon, though we would not 
suspect its presence because it is combined with other 
substances and has merged its own character in those 
of the substances of which it forms a part. All our 
food contains carbon in its combinations. 

When we breathe w^e take into our bodies the oxy- 
gen of the air. This oxygen is needed by the various 
organs and is carried in the blood from the lungs to all 
parts of the body. During the circulation the oxygen is 
taken up by the cells and replaced by carbon dioxide. 
This is brought back by the blood to the lungs and 
breathed out. If we remain long in a closed room, a 
portion of the oxygen of the air in the room and of the 
substance of our bodies is changed into carbon dioxide, 
which is unfit to breathe. This is the reason for the 
special need of ventilation in the sleeping room. 

Water Water in the form of vapor is constantly passing- 

off into the air from the surface of bodies of water, 
from vegetation, and from animal organisms, as in- 
visible vapor. The amount of water vapor present 
in the air is very variable. Warm air will hold more 
vapor than cold air. Ordinarily on a pleasant day, the 
atmosphere holds between 60 per cent and 70 per cent 
of the possible amount of water vapor. 



26 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 



19 



When the air is saturated or at the dew point, a 
slight lowering of the temperature causes the vapor to 
condense. That air will absorb only a certain amount 
of moisture explains why a draft of air is necessary 
when drying clothes within doors and why the wash- 
ing drys slowly on a damp day. 

The presence of vapor in the air is shown by bring- 
ing a pitcher of ice water into a warm room. The air 
against the cold surface of the pitcher is cooled until 
the dew point is reached, when it deposits part of its 
moisture. Any person who wears glasses knows the 
effect of such condensation in going into a warm room 
from out of doors on a cold day. That the air exhaled 
contains water may be shown by breathing upon any 
bright, cold surface. 

The discomfort we feel in a crowded room is largely 
due to the excess of moisture resulting from the 
breathing and perspiration of so many persons. The 
danger of going from a crowded reception or *'tea" 
into the open air is also due to it. Crowded rooms 
become very warm, the air soon becomes saturated 
with vapor and cannot take away the perspiration from 
our bodies. Our clothes thus become moist and the 
skin tender. When we go into the colder, drier air, 
clothes and skin suddenly give up their load of mois- 
ture. Evaporation absorbs heat ; the heat is taken 
from our bodies and a chill results. There is much 
to learn concerning the ventilation of "rooms for social 
purposes. 



Dew 
Point 



How a 
Chill is 
Produced 



27 



20 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

^ ^^ The air also contains a very small amount of a gas 
called argon. This was discovered in 1894. It resem- 
bles nitrogen so closely that it long escaped detection. 
Several other gases are present in minute quantities. 

COMBUSTION 

Very likely a fire must be built in the cook stove. 
In order that chemical combination may take place, 
the conditions must be right. The stove is so con- 
structed that a current of air can pass from under the 
grate through the fire box, and funnel, to the chimney, 
and we must arrange that this air current shall not be 
unduly obstructed, for fuel will not burn without 
oxygen. 
Kindling Substauccs differ greatly as to the ease or difficulty 

with which they may be made to burn, or in chemical 
terms, with which they may be made to unite with 
oxygen. The temperature to which a substance must 
be heated before it will take fire is called the kindling 
point. We therefore place light materials, like shav- 
ings, pitch-pine chips, or paper on the grate, twisting 
the paper and arranging all in such a way that oxygen 
has free access to a large surface ; upon this we place 
small sticks of wood, piling them across each other 
for the same reason, and on this, in turn, hard wood or 
coal. The large stick of wood or the coal cannot be 
kindled with a match, but the paper or shavings can, 
and these in burning will heat the wood until it takes 
fire which then will kindle the coal. 



Point 



28 



COMBUSTION. 



21 



To kindle the fire, we unthinkingly^ hght a match. 
The burning of the match repeats the same principle 
we have described. The match is made by dipping the 
ends of small sticks of wood into melted sulphur, a 
substance more easily kindled than wood. When the 
sulphur is dried, the match is tipped with a preparation 
of phosphorus. Phosphorus has such a low kindling 
temperature that friction of the match against any 
rough surface heats it sufficiently to set it on fire. In 
burning, this sets fire to the sulphur and this, in turn, 
kindles the wood. Paraffine now has replaced sulphur. 

The products (substances formed) of the burning 
match are oxide of phosphorus, oxide of sulphur, and 
carbon dioxide and water from the carbon and hydro- 
gen of the wood. As our coal fire burns, we have two 
diflierent oxides of carbon formed — carbon monoxide 
composed of one part carbon and one part oxygen, 
and carbon dioxide having two parts oxygen to one of 
carbon. The carbon monoxide formed in the lower 
part of the fire rises through the burning coals, takes 
up more oxygen at the top of the fire and forms carbon 
dioxide. The blue flames seen over a hard coal fire 
are caused by carbon monoxide burning. Carbon 
dioxide does not burn, since in this form the carbon 
holds as much oxygen as possible. The drafts and 
dampers so regulate the supply of oxygen that the 
fire may burn rapidly or slowly and that the harmful 
products of combustion may be carried out of the 
house by way of the chniiney. 



Chemistry 
of a Match 



Products of 
Combustion 



Carton 
Monoxide 



29 



22 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOED. 



Constant 
Oomposition 
of the Air 



Elements 



It might be thought that with the milUons of human 
beings and animals and countless fires constantly usini;- 
oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide, that the atmos- 
phere would soon consist of a large proportion of car- 
bon dioxide. Nature has wonderfully provided for 
this. Carbon dioxide, which is the waste matter of 
animals, is one of the foods of plants. Thus the trees 
of the forest and the shrubs and plants of the garden 
are continually taking in the carbon dioxide and giv- 
ing out pure oxygen, so that the carbon dioxide is 
kept at about three or four parts in 10,000 of air. 

As has been said, wood consists mainly of the sub- 
stances, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, to- 
gether with other substances in small amounts. The 
growing tree has taken these simple substances from 
the air and earth and stored them up in a complex form 
as wood. 

The chemist calls the simple substances out of which 
different things are made, elements. Carbon, oxygen, . 
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, silver, gold, copper, 
iron, lead, tin, mercury, zinc, aluminum are the chemi- 
cal elements familiar to most people. When the wood 
is burned, or oxidized, its elements are made into new 
combinations, but in the burning no substance is de- 
stroyed. Some of the new products are invisible, it 
is true, but that they exist may be proved in many 
ways. 

One of the fundamental laws of chemistry is the 
Law of Conservation of Matter (substance). This 
may be stated as follows : The weight of all the 



30 



COMBUSTION. 



23 



products made in a chemical action is exactly equal to 
the weight of all the substances used. That is, the 
weight of the dry wood plus the weight of the oxygen 
required to burn it, equals the combined weight of car- 
bon dioxide, water, and ashes produced. Matter can 
neither be destroyed nor created — it can only be 
changed or transformed. Scientists have reason to be- 
lieve that there is just the same amount of oxygen, nit- 
rogen, sulphur, iron and of all the other elements in 
the universe at the present moment as there was at the 
beginning of things. 

A familiar form of nearly pure carbon is charcoal. 
It is made by heating wood for a time with a very 
small amount of air. The vola- 
tile parts of the wood are driven 
off, leaving the carbon. The old 
fashioned method of making 
charcoal is shown in Fig. ii, 
where the burning of part of the 
wood gave the heat necessary for 
the making of the charcoal. At ^'^- "• c^^^^-^o^i Kim. 
the present time, most charcoal is made by the de- 
structive distillation of hard wood in iron stills ; the 
products being charcoal, crude wood alcohol, crude 
acetic acid, together with gas and wood tar, which last 
are burned to give the heat for the process. 

Charcoal is a porous substance and has the power of 
absorbing into its pores gases and even particles of 



Conservation 
of Matter. 




Charooal 



31 



24 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

coloring matter. A few pieces of charcoal added to 
the water in which flowers are standing, or plants 
growing, help to keep the water sweet by absorbing the 
impurities. Boneblack, a very finely powdered animal 
charcoal, is used to decolorize li([uids. If it is mixed 
with a dark- syrup, for instance, and the mixture vio- 
lently shaken, the color will be absorbed and filtration 
will give a nearly colorless syrup. 
Coal Coal is formed in almost every country on the 

earth, but the United States has the largest amount. 
It was originally wood and other carbonaceous mate- 
rial, once a part of living organism at a date of perhaps 
millions of years ago. During these years, the earth's 
crust has been subjected to slow upheavals and depres- 
sions, so that in some places, what was originally at 
the surface, has been covered with thousands of feet of 
earthy matter, or possibly by the ocean. Under enor- 
mous pressure, the plants have been subjected to heat 
from the earth's interior. This is destructive distil- 
lation on the largest scale. 
Graphite lu tlic making of coal if this distillation is com- 

plete, a substance called graphite is obtained. Graphite 
is the black lead used in lead pencils and in stove polish. 
It is a shiny, black mineral with a slippery feeling and 
is nearly lOO per cent carbon. If the distillation is 
less complete, hard coal, called anthracite containing 
about 90 per cent carbon, results. If still less per- 
fect, soft or bituminous coal, having varying per- 
centages of carbon, is formed. 



32 



COMBUSTION. 25 

Where the process goes on under water, peat is p^^^ 
found. This is partially formed coal, but little dis- 
tilled and contains only about 40 per cent carbon. 

Besides carbon, these substances are made up of 
gases composed- of carbon and hydrogen, called hydro- 
carbons. These gases give the yellowish and orange 
flames in a coal fire. Pure carbon does not burn with 
flame — it merely glows. Anthracite coal contains 
only from 3 to 4 per cent of volatile matter, but bi- 
tuminous coal may have 30 to 40 per cent of these 
hydro-carbon gases. 

Coke is made by the destructive distillation of soft coke 
coal. Like charcoal, it is chiefly carbon, but contains 
more mineral matter (ash). The coke obtained as a 
bi-product in the manufacture of coal gas is rather soft, 
but when coke is made as the principal product, it is 
hard and brittle. Coke makes a very hot fire without 
flame, but does not last as well as hard coal. The ash 
should be allowed to accumulate in the grate when 
burning it. Many consider it an improvement over 
soft coal for household use and it might be used to 
advantage more than it is. 

Graphite is so hard and compact that it cannot be 
burned. Anthracite ignites with some difliculty and 
then burns slowly with intense heat. 

Bituminous coal ignites readily and burns well when coking 
there is sufficient draft. The "coking" variety cakes 
over on top and the fire must be broken up to allow 
the air to penetrate the fire. Soft coal should be put 
on the fire in small amounts as otherwise the hydro- 



33 



Coal 



26 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



carbon gases escape unburned and thus much heat 
value is lost. Smoke is made up of finely divided 
particles of carbon and is always an indication of in- 
complete combustion and, therefore, loss. 





/'( 1 A 




^ V','m-'\ ) 




p" 

\r 




^T==T=7^^' 


*««^ 


„, ' 



Fig. 12. Burner of a Blue Flame Oil Stove. 

Oil from tank (not shown) is forced up O, Is vaporized in passing 
through the straight tube, mixes with air at A, and burns with a blue 
tiame at the top. 

Kerosene Kcroscnc and gasoline are also important fuels. Gas 

will be taken up under the subject of light. Petroleum 
is an oily liquid found in many places in large quanti- 
ties, particularly in Pennsylvania and Ohio. It is 
made up almost entirely of compounds of carbon and 
hydrogen (hydro-carbons). 

When the crude petroleum from the Pennsylvania 
district is purified by distillation and other processes, 
the main product is kerosene. The lighter and more 
volatile products are gasoHne, naphtha, and benzine 
— all three having much the same composition. Gaso- 
line is the most volatile. Among the heavier products 
are various lubricating oils, vaseline, and paraffin. 

In order to burn, kerosene must be vaporized. In 
the new blue flame oil stoves, various devices are em- 



34 



COMBUSTION. 



27 



ployed to vaporize the oil. In Fig. 12 the oil passes 
through a tube heated by the flame, where it is changed 
to vapor which is mixed automatically with air and is 
then burned. Sometimes an alcohol flame is used to 
start this process, but the flame of the burning oil 
itself continues it. A slight pressure of air is main- 
tained in the oil reservoir to give a constant small jet 
of oil to be vaporized. In other styles of stoves, the 
oil is fed automatically by gravity to a hollow ring, 
when it becomes heated to the point that it gives vapor. 
The vapor mixes with air and burns with a blue flame. 
Fig. 13. 




Fig. 13. Blue Flame Oil Stove, Showing Oil Reservoir and Light- 
ing Ring. 

Gasoline is burned on much the same principle as 
kerosene. It vaporizes much more easily and the pres- 
sure for the flow of the gasoline is furnished usually 
by having the tank a few feet above the burner. 



Blue Flame 
Oil Stoves 



Gasoline 



35 



28 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

rJ.Mh ^^^^ measure of safety of kerosene is the temperature 
Point ^^ which it will give off an inflammable gas. This 
is called the flash point and is determined by heating 
the oil slowly and observing the temperature at v^hich 
a flash can be produced by applying a lighted taper 
to the surface of the oil. Below the flash point, there 
is no danger of explosion from oil. Most states in the 
United States have a legal flash point, or a fire test, 
below which standard kerosene cannot be sold. The 
flash point of good kerosene is 120'' F. The fire test 
is the temperature at which the oil will take fire and 
burn when a light is applied. This is about 30° F 
higher than the flash point. The ordinary tempera- 
ture of the room is above the flash point of gasoline, 
naphtha, benzine, etc. In other words, these sub- 
stances are constantly giving out an inflammable vapor. 
Fuel A comparison of the heating value of the various 

fuels will be of interest. Practical tests of the amount 
of steam produced in a steam boiler have shown that 
one cord of ordinary wood is approximately equal to 
one-half ton of coal ; a gallon of oil (or gasoline) is 
equal to about twelve pounds of coal; 1,000 cubic feet 
of coal gas is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about 
four and one-half gallons of oil. Hard coal has a 
little higher fuel value than soft coal, because the com- 
bustion is commonly more perfect. Coke is nearly 
equal to hard coal by weight, but is much more bulky. 
It is usually sold by measure. A bushel of coke 
weighs 40 pounds, of anthracite 67 pounds, and of soft 



36 



FOOD. 29 

coal y6 pounds. Damp wood is a much poorer fuel 
than dry wood, because so much heat is absorbed and 
wasted in changing the water into steam. 

The heat given off by a fuel is not the only point to 
be considered. In the cook stove, but a small portion 
of the heat given off by the solid fuel can be used for 
cooking, as most of it is radiated into the room or 
carried up the chimney. In the gas or oil stove, the 
flame may be applied exactly where it is wanted, so 
that the proportion of heat which can be used is much 
greater. Moreover, the flame can be shut off instantly 
when wanted no longer and all expense stopped. On 
the other hand, the range usually serves to heat the 
water of the hot water system, incinerate garbage, and 
in winter helps to heat the house. 

FOOD 

Having the fire well under way the housekeeper 
turns her attention to the breakfast. A great variety 
of chemical actions may here be considered. In the 
first place, why must we "eat to live ?" 

Wherever there is life, there is chemical change ; 
and as a rule a certain degree of heat is necessary ^^ ^« 
in order that chemical change may occur. Vegetation 
does not begin in the colder climates until the air be- 
comes warmed by the heat of the spring. When the 
cold of winter comes upon the land vegetation ceases. 

Since many animals Kve in temperatures in which 
plants would die, it is evident that they must have some 



37 



30 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Combustion 
in the Body 



Vital 
Temperature 



Air as 
Food 



source of heat in themselves. This is found in the 
union of the oxygen of the air breathed with car- 
bonaceous matter eaten as food and the formation of 
carbon dioxide and water, just as in the combustion of 
wood or coal. Only instead of this union taking place 
in one spot and so rapidly as to be accompanied by 
light, as in the case of fire, it takes place slowly and 
continuously in each living cell. Nevertheless, the 
chemical reaction seems to be identical. 

The heat of the human body must be maintained at 
98.5° F — the vital temperature — the temperature neces- 
sary for the best performance of the normal functions. 
Any continued variation from this degree of heat in- 
dicates disease. Especially important is it that there 
be no considerable lozvcving of this temperature, for a 
fall of one degree is dangerous, since in that case the 
chemical changes necessary to the body cannot be car- 
ried out. 

The slow combustion or oxidation of the carbon 
and hydrogen of food cannot take place without an 
abundance of oxygen ; hence the diet of the animal must 
include fresh air — a point not always considered. 

The amount of oxygen taken in by the body daily is 
equal to the sum of all the other food elements. 

Except water, two-thirds of these foods consists of 
some form of starch or sugar — the socalled carbohy- 
drates, in which the hydrogen and oxygen are found in 
the same proportion as in water. 

The power to do mechanical work comes from the 



38 



FOOD. 



31 



combustion of fuel. The body is a living machine 
capable of doing work, raising weights, pulling loads, 
and the like. The animal body also requires fuel in 
order to do such work as thinking, talking, even wor- 
rying. For the present, then, we will say that food is 
necessary, (i) to preserve the vital temperature and 
(2) to enable the body-machine to do its work. 

Suppose we begin our breakfast with fruit, say, an 
orange or a banana. Fruits are especially rich in 
sugars and these are composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen. If sugar is placed upon a stove, it will 
melt and steam (water) will pass off into the air, 
leaving the black charcoal (carbon) ou the stove. 
Moreover, sugars burn easily and fiercely. We shall 
get both heat and energy from our fruit. Within the 
body it will be changed into water and carbon dioxide- 
Fruits contain a large percentage of water ; but the 
banana is capable of giving more energy and heat 'than 
the orange, because it has much less water and more 
sugar. Fruit loses in drying a large portion of its 
water, so that dried fruits contain a larger percentage 
of food materials than fresh fruits. For instance, 
raisins are 60 per cent grape sugar. 

Fruits consist of a loose net-work of a woody ma- 
terial holding the soft pulp and this woody fibre, called 
cellulose, is practically indigestible. Cooking softens 
this, making cooked fruits easier to digest. 



The Body 
a Machine 



Fruit 



CellulosK 



39 



Cane 
Sugar 



32 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

SUGARS AND STARCHES. 

At breakfast some sugar from the sugar bowl may 
be added to the fruit. Many people add sugar to the 
oatmeal or other cereal eaten, although it is often held 
by teachers of dietetics that this is not a good place to 
use it, for proper cooking and thorough mastication of 
the cereal will bring out a rich sweetness due to changes 
explained later. Country boys know how sweet a 
morsel is made by chewing raw grains, especially 
wheat. Possibly a glass of milk is taken at breakfast 
and this contains another kind of sugar — milk sugar — 
in about 5 per cent. Coffee and tea are usually sweet- 
ened, so that a considerable part of the breakfast may 
be of this class of foods — a quickly burning material 
giving heat and energy. 

There are several different sugars recognized by 
chemists ; these are cane sugar or sucrose, grape sugar 
or glucose, milk sugar or lactose, and fruit sugar or 
levulose. Cane sugar is obtained from the juices of 
many plants, notably sugar beets, sugar cane, the 
palm, and as maple sugar from the rock-maple trees. 
Molasses and brown sugar are obtained during the 
manufacture of white sugar from sugar cane. Cane 
sugar is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 
in the proportion of twelve parts of carbon to eleven 
parts of water. When sugar is heated it is chemically 
changed, more or less, according to the degree of heat 
and the rapidity with which it parts with its water. 



40 



SUGARS AND STARCHES. 33 

Heating it gradually, we obtain first straw colored 
barley sugar, then brown caramel, and finally black 
carbon. 

Grape sugar is found in honey and in all ripe fruits. Grape 
It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in some- ^"^^"^ 
what different proportions from what they occur in 
cane sugar. It appears on the outside of dried fruits, 
such as raisins. It is only two-fifths as sweet as cane 
sugar. Large quantities- are manufactured from corn 
starch. 

Milk sugar is similar to cane sugar in composition. j^^j^ 
It is obtained from the whey of milk. It is hard ^"^^'^ 
and gritty and not very sweet to taste. When milk 
sours, it is because this sugar is fermented and changed 
into lactic acid. The acid causes the milk to curdle. 

Fruit sugar or levulose occurs with glucose (grape -^^.^^^ 
sugar) in fruits. It is about as sweet as cane sugar ^"^" 
but it does not crystallize. 

A marked characteristic of all sugars is their solu- 
bility and all but the last are crystalline substances, 
that is, will form crystals. 

At breakfast bread, toast, or some cereal like oat- 
meal or wheat, usually follows the fruit course. 
These foods are prepared from grains (seeds) and 
contain much nutriment in a condensed form. They 
supply the body with starch and some nitrogenous 
food. But the body cannot use starch as such. It 
must be changed into a form of sugar called starch 
sugar, or maltose. While we are following Mr. Glad- 



starch 



41 



34 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Source 
of Starch 



stone's rule and chewing each mouthful of our toast 
twenty-five times, we will consider what starch is like 
and how it is made available for use. 

Starch is found in greater or less abundance in all 
plants and is laid up in large quantities in the seeds of 
many species. See Fig. 14. Rice is nearly pure 
starch ; wheat and the other cereals contain sixty to 
seventy per cent of it. Some tubers, such as potatoes, 
contain it although in less quantity — ten to twenty per 
cent. 

It is formed by means 
of the living plant-cell 
and the sun's rays, from 
the carbon dioxide and 
water contained in the 
air and it is the end of 
the plant - life — the 
stored energy of ' the 
summer. It is prepared 
and stored by the parent 

for the food for the young plant until the latter can 

start its own starch factories. 

Starch in its common forms is insoluble in water. It 
dissolves partially in boiling water, forming a trans- 
parent jelly when cooled, as every housekeeper knows. 
The cellulose which occurs in various forms in the 
shells and skins of fruits, in their membraneous parti- 
tions, and in cell walls, is an allied substance. 




Fig. 14. starch Much Magnified. 
a, Potato Starch; b, Corn Starch. 



42 



SUGARS AND STARCHES. 



35 



DIGESTION 

Digestion is primarily synonymous with solution. 
All solid food materials must become practically solu- 
ble before they can pass through the walls of the di- 
gestive system. Starch and like materials must be 
transformed into soluble substances before absorption 
can take place. Cane-sugar, though soluble, has to 
undergo chemical change before it can be absorbed. 
By these changes it is converted into grape and fruit 
sugars. These and milk sugar are taken directly or 
with little change into the circulation. To this- fact is 
due a large part of the great nutritive value of the 
dried fruits, as raisins, dates, and figs, and the advan- 
tage of milk-sugar over cane-sugar for children or in- 
valids. 

Under certain conditions — weakened digestive power 
or excess of sugar — cane-sugar may remain so long 
in the stomach before the change takes place that fer- 
mentation sets in and a "sour stomach" results. This 
is one of the dangers of too much candy. 

The chemical transformations of starch and sugar 
have been very carefully and scientifically studied with 
reference to brewing and wine-making. Several of 
the operations concerned necessitate great precision in 
respect to temperature and length of time, and these 
operations bear a close resemblance to the process 
of bread-making by means of yeast. 

There are two distinct means known to the chemist 
by which starch is changed to sugar. One is by the 



Digestion 
of Starch 



Starch 
Conversion 



43 



Ferments 



Conversion 
in the Body 



36 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

use of acid and heat, which changes the starch into 
sugar, but can go no farther. The other is by the use 
of a class of substances called ferments, some of which 
have the power of changing starch into sugar, and 
others of changing the sugar into alcohol and carbon 
dioxide. These ferments are very important in all 
vesfetable and animal life. Some are formed bv small 
plants like yeast, which is often present in the air. 

Fig. 15- 

Among the well known ferments is one formed in 
sprouting grain, which is called diastase or starch con- 
verter, and under the influence of warmth, changes the 
starch into a sugar. The starch first 
takes up water ; then under the in- 
fluence of the ferment, is changed 
into maltose, a form of sugar 
which is easily soluble in water. A 
similar process is carried on in the 
preparation of the malted foods on 
the market. 

The same cycle of chemical changes goes on in the 
human body when starchy substances are taken as 
food. Such food is moistened with saliva and warmed 
in the mouth, becoming well mixed through mastica- 
tion. It thereby becomes impregnated with pfyalin, 
a ferment in the saliva, which can change starch into 
sugar, as can the diastase of the malt. The mass then 
passes into the stomach and the change, once begun, 
goes on. In the intestines the sugar formed is absorbed 
into the circulatory system and by the life proc- 




Fig. 15. 

Yeast Highly 

Magnified. 



44 



COOKING. 



37 



esses, is oxidized, that is, united with more oxygen 
and changed finally into carbon dioxide and water, 

from which it v/as made by the help of plant life and 
sun light. 

No starch is utilized in the human system as starch. 
It must undergo transformation before it can be ab- 
sorbed. Therefore, starchy foods must not be given to 
children before the secretion of the starch converting 
ferments has begun, nor to any one in any disease 
where the normal action of the glands secreting these 
ferments is interrupted. Whatever starch passes out 
of the stomach unchanged, meets with a very active 
converter in the intestinal juice. If grains of starch 
escape these two agents, they leave the system in the 
same form as that in which thev entered it. 



Digestion 
of Starch 



COOKING 



Early man, probably, lived much like the beasts, 
taking his food in a raw state. Civilized man requires 
much of the raw material to be changed by the action 
of heat into substances more palatable and already 
partly digested. 

The chemistry of cooking the raw materials is very 
simple. It is in the mixing of incongruous materials 
in one dish or one meal that complications arise. 

The cooking of starch, as rice, farina, etc., requires 
little explanation. The starch grains are prepared by 
the plant to keep during a season of cold or drought 
and are very close and compact ; they need to be 



Cooking 
of Starch 



45 



38 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

swollen and distended by moisture in order that the 
chemical change may take place readily. Starch grains 
may increase to twenty-five times their bulk by absorb- 
• ing water. 

The cooking of the potato and other starch-contain- 
ing vegetables, although largely a physical or mechani- 
cal process is very necessary as a preparation for the 
chemical actions of digestion ; for raw starch has been 
shown to require a far longer time and more digestive 
power than cooked starch. Change takes place slowly, 
even with thorough mastication, unless the starch is 
swollen and heated, and, in case the intestinal secre- 
tion is disturbed, the starch may not become converted 
at all. 

Bread O^r brcakfast will undoubtedly contain bread. 

Bread of some kind has been used by mankind from 
the first dawn of civilization. During the earlier 
stages it consisted chiefly of powdered meal and water 
baked in the sun or on hot stones. This kind of bread 
had the same characteristics as the modern sea-biscuit, 
crackers, and hoe cakes, as far as digestibility was 
concerned. It had great density ; it was difficult to 
masticate ; and the starch in it presented but little 
more surface to the digestive fluids than that in the 
hard compact grain, the seed of the plant. 

Experience must have taught the semi-civilized man 
that a light porous loaf was more digestible than a 
dense one. Probably some dough was accidentally left 
exposed ; yeast plants settled upon it from the air ; 



46 



COOKING. 39 

fermentation set in, and the possibility of porous bread 
was thus suggested. 

A Hght, spongy, crisp bread with a sweet, pleasant ideal 
taste, is not only aesthetically but chemically con- 
sidered the best form in which starch can be presented 
to the digestive organs. The porous condition is de- 
sired in order that as large a surface as possible may 
be presented to the action of the chemical converter, 
the pty^lin of the saliva, and later to other digestive 
ferments. There is also better aeration during the 
process of mastication. 

Very early in the history of the human race, leavened leaven 
bread seems to have been used. This was made by *''* ^®*** 
allowing flour and water to stand in a warm place until 
fermentation had well set in. A portion of this dough 
was used to start the process anew in fresh portions of 
flour and water. This kind of bread had to be made 
with great care, for germs different from yeast might 
get in, forming lactic acid — the acid of sour milk — 
and other substances unpleasant to the taste and harm- 
ful to the digestion. 

A sponge made from perfectly pure yeast and kept 
pure may stand for a long time after it is ready for 
the oven and still show no signs of sourness. 

On account of the disagreeable taste of leaven and 
because of the possibility that the dough might reach 
the stage of putrid fermentation, chemists and physi- 
cians sought for some other means of rendering the 
bread light and porous. The search began almost as 



47 



Chemistry of 



40 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

soon as chemistry was worthy the name of a science, 
and one of the early patents bears the date 1873. Much 
time and thought have been devoted to the perfecting 
of unfermented bread; but since the process of beer- 
making has been universally introduced, yeast has 
been readily obtained, and is an effectual means of giv- 
ing to the bread a porous character and a pleasant 
taste. Since the chemistry of the yeast fermentation 
has been better understood, a change of opinions has 
come about, and nearly all scientific and medical men 
now recommend fermented bread, if well baked. 

The chemical reactions concerned in bread-making 
Bread-Making ^j.^ similar to thosc iu beer-making. To the flour and 
warmed \yater is added yeast, a microscopic plant, 
capable of causing the alcoholic fermentation. The 
yeast begins to act at once, but slowly ; more rapidly 
if sugar has been added and the dough is a semi-fluid. 
Without the addition of sugar no change is evident to 
the eye for some hours, as the fermentation of starch 
to sugar by the diastase present gives no gaseous 
products. The sugar is decomposed by the yeast plant 
into alcohol and the gas, carbon dioxide ; the latter 
product makes itself known by the swelling of the 
whole mass and the bubbles which appear on the sur- 
face. 

It is the carbon dioxide, which causes the sponge- 
like condition of the loaf by reason of the peculiar 
tenacity of the gluten, one of the constituents of wheat. 
It is a well-known fact that no other kind of grain will 



48 



COOKING. 



41 



make so light a bread as wheat. It is the right pro- 
portion of gluten (a nitrogenous substance to be con- 
sidered later) which enables the light loaf to be made 
of wheat flour. 

The production of carbon dioxide is the end of the 
chemical process. The rest is purely mechanical. 

The baking of the loaf has for its object to kill the 
ferment, to heat the starch sufficiently to render it 
easily soluble, to expand the carbon dioxide and drive 
off the alcohol, to stiffen the gluten, and to make chem- 
ical changes which shall give a pleasant flavor to the 
crust. The oven must be hot enough to raise the tem- 
perature of the inside of the loaf to 212° F, or the 
bacteria will not all be killed. A pound loaf, four 
inches by four inches by nine inches long, may be 
baked three-quarters of an hour in an oven where the 
temperature is 400'' F, or for an hour and a half, when 
the temperature during the time does not rise above 
350° F. Quick baking gives a white loaf, because the 
starch has undergone but little change. .The long, 
slow baking gives a yellow tint, with the desirable 
nutty flavor, and crisp crust. Different flavors in 
bread are supposed to be caused by the different 
varieties of yeast used or by bacteria, which are pres- 
ent in all doughs, as ordinarily prepared. 

The brown coloration of the crust, which gives a 
peculiar flavor to the loaf, is caused by the formation 
of substances analogous to dextrine and caramel, due 
to the high heat to which the starch is subjected. 



Object of 
Baking 



The Crust 



49 



42 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

One hundred pounds of flour are said to make from 
126 to 150 pounds of bread. This increase of weight 
is due to the incorporation of water, possibly by a 
chemical union, as the water does not dry out of a loaf, 
as it does out of a sponge. The bread seems moist when 
first taken from the oven, and dry after standing some 
hours, but the weight will be found to be nearly the 
same. It is this probable chemical change which makes 
the difference, to delicate stomachs, between fresh 
bread and stale. A thick loaf is best when eaten after 
it is twenty-four hours old, although it is said to be 
"done" when ten hours have passed. Thin biscuit do 
not show the same ill effects when eaten hot. 

The bread must be well baked in any case, in order 
that the process of fermentation may be stopped. If 
this be stopped and the mastication be thorough, so 
that the bread when swallowed is in finely divided por- 
tions instead of in a mass or ball, the digestibility of 
fresh and stale bread is about the same. 

Water The cxpausiou of water or ice into more than seven- 
teen hundred times its volume of steam is sometimes 
taken advantage of in making snow-bread, water-gems, 
etc. It plays a part in the lightening of pastry and 
crackers. 

Air, at 70 degrees, doubles its volume at a tempera- 
ture of 560 degrees F, so that if air is entangled in a 
mass of dough, it gives a certain lightness when the 
whole is baked. This is the cause of the sponginess 
of cakes made with eggs. The viscous albumen or 



50 



COOKING. 



43 



''white of egg" catches the air and holds it, even when 
it is expanded, unless the oven is too hot, when the 
sudden expansion is liable to burst the bubbles and the 
cake falls. 

FATS 

If cream instead of milk is used on the cereal or in 
the coffee, this with the butter on the bread, will add 
a considerable amount of another important food, 
fat. Fats form a large class of food stuffs which in- 
clude the animal fats like cream, butter, suet, lard, 
cod liver oil and tallow, and vegetable fats like olive 
and cotton-seed oils, etc. Within the animal body ail 
fats are liquids, being held in little cells which make 
up the fatty tissue. 

The digestion of fats is probably something like a 
process of soap making. With the intestinal fluids, 
the bile especially, the fats form an emulsion in which 
the globules are finely divided, and in some way are 
rendered capable of passing through the membranes 
into the circulatory system. The change, if any, does 
not destroy the properties of the fatty matters. 

If we define cooking as the application of heat, then 
whatever we do to fats in the line of cooking is liable 
to hinder rather than help digestibility. 

Fats may be heated to a temperature far above that 
of boiling water without showing any change ; but 
there comes a point, different for each fat, where re- 
actions take place, the products of which irritate the 
mucous membranes and therefore interfere with diges- 



Digestion 
of Fats 



Cooking: 
of Fats 



51 



44 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Composition 
of Fats 



Heat from 
Fats 



tion. It is the volatile products of such decomposition 
which cause the famiUar action upon the eyes and 
throat during the process of frying, and also, the tell- 
tale odors throughout the house. The indigestibility of 
fatty foods, or foods cooked in fat, is due to these 
harmful substances produced by too high temperature. 

Many fats are solid at ordinary temperatures, while 
others are always liquids, but all fatty materials have 
a similar composition. When pure they contain only 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They differ from 
starch and sugar in the proportion of oxygen to the 
carbon and hydrogen, there being very little oxygen 
relatively in fats, hence more must be taken from the 
air for their combustion. If persons eat much fat they 
must have more fresh air to burn it. A person confined 
to the house needs to be careful what fats, and how 
much, are taken. 

One pound of starch requires one and two-tenths 
pounds of oxygen, while one pound of suet requires 
about three pounds of oxygen for perfect combustion. 
This combustion of oxygen with the large amount of 
hydrogen, as well as with the carbon, results in a 
greater quantity of heat from fat, pound for pound, 
than can be obtained from starch or sugar. Experi- 
ments indicate that the fats yield more than twice as 
much heat as the carbohydrates ; hence people in 
Arctic regions use large amounts of fat and every- 
where the diet of winter may safely contain more fat 
than that of summer. 



52 



NITROGENOUS FOODS. 



45 



Both fats and carbohydrates are the sources of the 
energy or work done by the body as well as the heat 
to keep up the vital temperature and they must be 
increased in proportion as the mechanical work of the 
body increases. A man breaking stone needs more fat 
or starch than the student. If a quantity is taken at 
any one time greater than the body needs for im- 
mediate work, the surplus will be deposited as fat, and 
this will be drawn in case of a lack in the future sup- 
ply of either ; it is like a bank account. 



Food 

a Source 

of Energy 



NITROGENOUS FOODS 

The animal body is more than a machine. It re- 
quires fuel to enable it not only to work but also to 
live, even without working. A part of the food eaten 
must go to maintain the body, for while the inani- 
mate machine is sent periodically to the repair-shop, the 
living machine must do its own repairing, day by day 
and minute by minute. 

The adult animal lives, repairs waste, and does 
work ; while the young animal does all these and more 
— it grows. For growth and repairs something else 
is needed beside starch and fat. 

The muscles are the instruments of motion, and 
they must be nourished in order that they may have 
power. The nourishment is carried to them by the 
blood in which, as well as in muscular tissue, there 
is found a food element which we have not heretofore 
considered, namely, nitrogen. It has been proved that 
the use of the muscles and the brain sets free certain 



Nitrogen 
Necessary 



53 



46 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Proteids 



Gelatinoids 



nitrogenous compounds which pass out of the system 
as such, 'and this loss must be supplied by the use of 
some kind of food which contains nitrogen. Starch 
and fat do not contain this element ; therefore they 
cannot furnish it to the blood. 

The American breakfast will probably include meat, 
fish, or eggs. These are examples of the nitrogenous 
food-stufifs. Nitrogenous food compounds are some- 
times classed together under the name of proteins. 
These may be divided into proteids, gelatinoids, and 
extractives. 

The proteids all resemble albumin, which is found 
nearly jnire in the white of an Qgg. These in some 
form are never absent from animal and vegetable or- 
ganisms. They are most abundant in animal flesh and 
in the blood. Other common articles of diet belong- 
ing to this group in addition to albumin, are the curd 
of milk (casein), tlie lean of animal flesh and fish 
and gluten of wheat, and the legumin of peas and 
beans. The proteids are the most important nitro- 
genous food materials. They build up and repair the 
muscles, tendons, cartilage, bones', and skin and supply 
the albumin of the blood and other fluids of the body. 

The animal skeleton — horns, bones, cartilage, con- 
nective tissues, etc. — contains nitrogenous com- 
pounds which are converted by boiling into substances 
that form with water a jelly-like mass. These are 
known as the irelatinoids and are so named because of 



their resemblance to gelatin. 



Although somewhat 



54 



NITROGENOUS FOODS. 



47 



similar to the proteids in composition they are not 
thought to be true flesh formers. However, they do 
help out the proteids in some unknown way. 

The chief constituent of the connective tissues of 
meats is collagen. This is insoluble in cold water, but 
in hot water becomes soluble and yields gelatin. Col- 
lagen swells when heated and when treated with 
dilute acids. Steak increases in bulk when placed 
over the coals, and tough meat is rendered tender by 
soaking in vinegar. Meat a few days old is tough, 
for the collagen is dry and hard. In time it becomes 
softened by acids which are secreted by bacteria either 
in or on the meat ; the meat thus becomes tender and 
easily masticated. Tannic acid has the opposite effect 
upon collagen, hardening and shrinking it. This ef- 
fect is taken advantage of in tanning, and is the dis- 
advantage of boiled tea as a beverage, since tea always 
contains a little of this tannic acid when freshly made 
and much more if the tea is boiled. 

The last class of nitrogenous compounds are the 
extractives, so called because they are readily extracted 
by water from meat where they principally occur. The 
proteins of this class are thought to have little value 
as food, but they give the flavor to meats, etc., and are 
therefore of great importance. They are stimulants, 
somewhat of the nature of caft'ein of coffee and the 
thein of tea. 



Collagen 



Extractives 



55 



4B CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

COOKING OF NITROGENOUS FOOD-STUFFS. 

Cooking should render nitrogenous food more solu- 
ble because here, as in every case, digestibility means 
solubility. Egg albumin is soluble in cold water, bur 
coagulates at about i6o° F. At this point it is ten- 
der, jelly-like, and easily digested, while at a higher 
temperature it becomes tough, hard and dissolves with 
difficulty. Therefore, when the white of tgg (al- 
bumin), the curd of milk (casein), or the gluten of 
wheat are hardened by heat, a much longer time is 
required to effect solution. 

Albumin As prcviously stated, Qgg albumin is tender and 

jelly-like when heated from i6o° F to i8o° F. This 
fact should never be forgotten in the cooking of eggs. 
Raw eggs are easily digested and are rich in nutri- 
ment ; when heated just enough to coagulate the al- 
bumin or "the white," their digestibility is not ma- 
terially lessened ; but when boiled, the albumin is 
rendered much less soluble. 

In frying eggs, the fat often reaches a temperature 
of 300° or over — far above that at which the albumin 
becomes tough, hard, and well-nigh insoluble. 

There is much albumin in the blood, therefore the 
juices of meat extracted in cold water form a weak 
albuminous solution. If this be heated to the right 
temperature the albumin is coagulated and forms the 
"scum" which many a cook skims off and throws away. 
In doing this she wastes a portion of the nutriment. 



56 



NITROGENOUS J'OODS. 49 

Experiments on the digestibility of gluten have Gluten 
proved that a high temperature largely decreases its 
solubility. Subjected to artificial digestion for the 
same length of time, nearly two and one-half times 
as much nitrogen was dissolved from the raw gluten 
as from that which had been baked. 

When gluten is combined with starch, as in the 
cereals, the difficulties of correct cooking are many, 
for the heat which increases the digestibility of the 
starch decreases that of the gluten. 

Experiment.- The gluten in wheat flour may be ob- 
tained as follows : Place half a cupful of flour in a 
muslin bag and knead under water. The starch will 
work out through the bag. After a time all the starch 
may be so separated. A brown, elastic, stringy mass 
remains in the muslin. This is gluten, the nitrogenous 
part of the flour. 

The same principle of cooking applies to casein of casein 
milk, although to a less extent. There seems to be no 
doubt that boiling decreases its solubility, and con- 
sequently, its digestibility for persons of delicate di- 
gestive power. 

The nitrogenous substances of meat consist of solu- Meat 
ble albumin, chiefly in the blood and juices, the al- 
buminoids of the fibres, the gelatinoids of the connect- 
ing tissues, and the extractives. The cooking should 
soften and loosen the connective tissue, so that the lit- 
tle bundle of fibre which contains the nutriment may 
fall apart easily when brought in contact with the 



57 



50 



CHIiMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Broth 

and 

Soup 



Effdct of 

Temperature 

on M-iat 



teeth. Any process which toughens and hardens the 
meat should be avoided. 

When it is desired to retain the juices within the 
meat or fish, it should be placed in boiling water so 
that the albumin of the surface may be hardened and 
prevent the escape of the albumin of the interior. The 
temperature should then be lowered and kept between 
1 60 and 180 degrees during the time needed for the 
complete breaking down of the connective tissues. 

When the nutriment is to be used in broths, stews, 
or soups, the meat should be placed in cold water, heat- 
ing very slowly and the temperature not allowed to 
rise above 180° F until the extraction is complete. The 
extracted meat still retains the greater part of its 
original proteid substances. It is tasteless and un- 
hiviting, but when combined with vegetables and 
flavoring materials may be made into a palatable and 
nutritious food. 

Experiment. To show the effect of water at dif- 
ferent temperatures upon raw meat, place a bit of lean 
meat about as large as the finger in a glass of cold 
water and let it stand an hour. The water becomes 
red, and the meat grows white. Pour off this water 
and boil it. A scum rises to the surface. The albu- 
min dissolved has been rendered insoluble by heat. 

Put a bit of raw meat into boiling water, and boil it 
hard several minutes. The meat is toughened by the 
process. The outside of the meat is hardened first, 
and very little of the nutriment dissolves in the water. 



58 



of Proteids 



FOOD. 51 

Put the meat into cold water and bring the tem- 
perature slowly to the boiling point ; then allow it to 
simmer gently for some time. The meat is tender, and 
some of the nutriment is in the water. This is the 
method employed in making a stew. A little fat which 
is always present even between the fibre of the lean 
meat will be melted out and rise to the top of the 
water. 

We have seen that the ferment in the saliva changed Digestion 
the starch into a sugar. The ferment in the gastric 
juice, pepsin, with the help of an acid (principally 
hydrochloric acid) changes the albuminoids into pep- 
tones in the stomach. This change is completed in the 
intestines. The peptones are soluble in water and are 
absorbed into the blood. 

SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS OF COOKING 

The object of all cooking is to make the food-stuffs 
more palatable or more digestible, or both combined. 
In general, the starchy foods are rendered more di- 
gestible by cooking ; the albuminous and fatty foods 
less digestible. The appetite of civilized man craves 
and custom encourages the putting together of raw 
materials of such diverse chemical composition that 
the processes of cooking are also made complex. 

Bread — the staff of life — requires a high degree of 
heat to kill the plant-life, and long baking to prepare 
the starch for solution ; while, by the same process, 
the gluten is made less soluble. Fats, alone, are easily 
digested, but in the ordinary method of frying, they 



59 



52 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Effect on 
Solubility 



Common 

Salt 



not only may become decomposed themselves, and 
therefore injurious ; but they also prevent the necessary 
action of heat, or of the digestive ferments upon the 
starchy materials with which the fats are mixed. 

The effects of cooking upon the solubility of the 
three important food-principles may be broadly stated 
thus : 

Starchy foods are made more soluble by long cook- 
ing at moderate temperatures or by heat high enough 
to change a portion of the starch to dextrine, as in 
the brown crust of bread. 

Nitrogenous foods. The animal and vegetable al- 
bumins are made less soluble by heat ; the gelatinoids 
more soluble. 

Fats are readily absorbed in their natural condition, 
but are decomposed at very high temperatures and 
their products become irritants. 

MINERAL MATTER 

The remaining ingredient of the food of our break- 
fast to be considered is the mineral matter which con- 
stitutes the ash when food-products are burned. There 
is only 5 or 6 per cent of mineral elements in our bod- 
ies, but these materials are necessary to life and health. 
They are found chiefly in the bones and teeth, but are 
present also in the flesh, blood, and other fluids. Phos- 
phate of calcium forms the principal mineral part of 
the bones. 

The food we eat contains a small amount of mineral 
matter which forms the ashes when food is burned. 



GO 



MINERAL MATTER. 53 

This mineral matter gives the body the mineral salts 
which it needs ; but in addition to this, most people de- 
sire and eat a considerable quantity of common salt 
every day. The amount eaten is far in excess of the 
sodium and chlorine the body requires, though sodium 
is an important constituent of many of the fluids of the 
body, and chlorine is found in hydrochloric acid of the 
gastric juice, the digestive fluid of the stomach. A 
great diversity of opinion exists as to the desirability 
of much salt in the diet, but the balance of evidence in- 
dicates that a liberal amount of salt is not harmful, but 
rather beneficial. 

Experiment. To show the mnieral part of bones, 
place a moderate sized bone on a hot coal fire for half 
an hour or longer. 

To show the gelatinoids of bones, place a small bone 
in a shallow dish and cover with strong vinegar or 
weak hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) and let stand 
over night or longer. The acid will dissolve out the 
phosphate of calcium leaving the animal matter. 

Coffee, an important part of the breakfast to most Flavor 
people, introduces an important feature of the chem- 
istry of cooking — the production of the proper flavor. 
The chemical changes involved are too subtile for ex- 
planation here — indeed many are not understood. The 
change in the coffee berry by roasting is a familiar il- 
lustration. The heat of the fire causes the breaking 
up of a substance existing in the berry, and the forma- 
tion of several new ones. If the heat is not suflicient, 



61 



Production 



54 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

the right odor will not be given ; if it is too great, the 
aroma will be dissipated into the air, or the compound 
will be destroyed. 

Broiling steak is another illustration — a few seconds 
too long, a few degrees too hot, and the delicate morsel 
becomes an irritating mass. The chemistry of flavor- 
producing is the application of heat to the food material 
in such a way as to bring about the right changes and 
only these. Flavors in addition to the pleasure they 
give to eating have the advantage of stimulating the 
flow of digestive fluids and making digestion more 
easy. 

DECAY 

The clearing away of the breakfast introduces to the 
housekeep'^r two important problems: — (i) the pres- 
ervation of the remaining food from decay; (2) the 
proper cleaning of the articles used during the meal 
and its preparation. 

Decay is caused by minute vegetable organisms 
known as moulds and bacteria. Both are present in 
the air either as the plants themselves or as their 
spores, the reproductive cells, ready to grow whenever 
they fall upon suitable soil. When these grow upon 
animal or vegetable substances, a variety of new com- 
pounds are formed, many of them taking oxygen from 
the air, so that finally the carbon becomes carbon diox- 
ide, the hydrogen is oxydized to form water, and the 
other elements in their turn also become oxides, so 
that the decaying substance is utterly destroyed and 



62 



Decay Not 



DECAY. . 55 

new substances made in its place. When organic sub- 
stances are protected from the action of these living 
plants, decay will not ensue. 

The old idea was that oxygen caused decay, but 
many experiments disprove this. Oxys^en alone does caused by 

-^ ^ . ^ /^ . Oxygen Alone 

not produce this result, but oxygen with "germs" will 
do so. These "germs" develop much more slowly in 
the cold, so that food is placed in the refrigerator or 
in a cool place and away from the dust. 

The problems introduced by these living plants, their 
life history and their work, as well as the methods of 
prevention and care against their ravages, belong 
rather to household bacteriology than to chemistry. 
We are ready therefore to pass on to our next prob- 
lem, that of cleaning. 



63 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

PART I, 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first 
sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one 
side of the sheet only. Do not copy ansivcrs from the lesson 
paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may kno',N 
that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num- 
ber of times before attempting to answer the questions. 



1. What do you understand a "chemical element" to 

be? Name all that you have ever seen. 

2. What is a ''saturated solution?" 

Name the substances usually found in the 
house which are soluble in water. 

3. What causes atmospheric pressure? Explain 

some effects of it. 

4. Why must the diet of animals include fresh air ? 

5. Explain the effect of cooking on starch, (b) On 

fats, (c) On proteids. 

6. What are the products of combustion in burning 

coal or wood? 

7. What is meant by "conservation of matter?" 

8. How can the boiling point of water be raised? 

How may it be lowered? 



64 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

9. V/hat is meant when it is said that a chemical 
substance always has the same composition ? 

10. What is "latent heat?" 

11. What can you say of the composition of meat? 

12. Explain the physical and chemical changes which 

starch must undergo before it is absorbed into 
the circulation. 

13. What can you say of the chemistry of bread- 

making ? 

14. Why is distilled water pure? 

15. Explain the composition of water. 

16. Describe the chemistry of a sulphur match. 

17. How is charcoal prepared ? How is coke made ? 

18. Why does the proportion of carbon dioxide in the' 

atmosphere not increase? 

19. In what different ways is food used in the body? 

20. Do you understand all parts of this lesson paper ? 

If not, what part is not clear ? 

Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 



65 




o o I o o 

o o\i<\j o o 
o o 



o 
o 



o 

o 



o 

o 




A MECHANICAL WASHING DEVICE 

Made to fit in the bottom of a wash boiler. The formation of 

steam forces the hot, soapy water up the spouts, 

over and through the clothes. 





ROTARY TYPE OF WASHER 

Piston Water Motor Attached 



"1900" WASHER 
Electrically Driven 



66 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

A Day's Chemistry 
PART II, 



CLEANING 



The cleaning of the dishes, silver, cutlery, and linen 
introduces a great variety of chemical problems. The 
subject of the chemistry of cleaning may well include 
with the daily task of dishwashing, the equally im- 
portant ones of house cleaning and laundry work. 

The various processes of housework give rise to 
many volatile substances, such as the vapor of water 
or fat. If not carried out of the house in their vapor- 
ous state these cool and settle upon all exposed sur- 
faces, whether walls, furniture, or fabrics. This thin 
film entangles and holds the dust, clouding and soil- 
ing with a layer more or less visible everything within 
the house. The fires and lights give out smoky de- 
posits of incomplete combustion. The dishes are soiled 
with waste from all kinds of foods — starch, grease, al- 
bumin, milk, gums, or gelatines and the juices of 
fruits. 

Dust alone might be removed from most surfaces 
with a damp or even with a dry cloth, or from fabrics 
by vigorous shaking or brushing ; but usually the 
greasy or sugary deposits must first be broken up and 
the dust thus set free. This must be accomplished 
without harm to the material which is dirty. 



67 



56 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

Cleaning, then, involves two processes: (i) the 
greasy or gummy film must be broken up, that the 
entangled dust and dirt may be set free; (2) the dust 
must be removed by mechanical means. 

We will have occasion to use alkalis for cleaning and 
acids for removing stains and it will be well to consid- 
er what is meant by the terms, acid, alkali, and salt. 

^^ An acid is a substance with an acid or sour taste 

^^^^ and having the property of changing certain vegetable 
colors. A substance much used in testing for acids is 
litmus, 2l kind of fungus, giving a blue solution in 
water. Paper soaked in litmus solution and dried is 
knowni as test paper or litmus paper. It can be bought 
at any druggist's. This paper is turned red by the 
presence of any acid, even in the most minute quantity. 
An acid will cause effervescence with a carbonate like 
cooking soda or washing soda. 

^n An alkali is a substance often having a soapy taste, 
a slippery feeling if strong, and the property of turn- 
ing red litmus, blue. 

Alkalies will neutralize the effects of acids. If an 
acid be added very carefully to an alkaline solution, 
there comes a point where the mixture will change the 
color of litmus in neither direction. The solution is 
neither acid nor alkaline, and is said to be neutraL 
If we make a weak solution of the acid sold at the 
drug stores as muriatic acid, and add to this very care- 
fully a weak solution of caustic soda, until the solu- 
tion is neutral, we shall find that the neutral solution 



Alkali 



68 



CLEANING. 57 

will taste like table salt. In fact, we have made com- 
mon salt in this way. 

A chemical salt is a substance obtained by neutraliz- ^ sait 
ing an acid with an alkali or otherwise — a substance 
that is usually neutral and will turn the color of neither 
red nor blue litmus paper. 

All acids contain the element hydrogen, which can 
often be driven out and replaced by a metal placed in 
the acid. If we drop a bit of zinc into some muriatic 
acid, tiny bubbles of hydrogen begin to escape. The 
zinc joins the remainder of the acid, making a 
new substance. This new substance is the metallic 
salt, called muriate (or chloride) of zinc. Muriatic 
acid is also called hydrochloric acid. Thus a salt re- 
sults from neutralizing an acid with a metal. If oxide 
of zinc, a white powder, has been used in place of the 
metal, the same salt, chloride of zinc, would have been 
made ; but no hydrogen gas would have come off, for 
the hydrogen of the acid would unite with oxygen of 
the oxide and form water. 

Grease or fats, called oils when liquid at ordinary Fats 
temperature, are chemical compounds made of carbon, ous 
oxygen, and hydrogen combined in many different 
ways, but all contain an ingredient of an acid nature 
known to the chemist as a fatty acid. The fatty acid 
base is combined with glycerine in the common fats. 

Strong alkaline substances will break up fats into 
their parts and combine with the fatty acid, thus 
making soap. 



69 



Alkali 
Metals 



58 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

The elements which form strong alkaHs are the 
"alkali metals." The common elements of this group 
are sodium and potassium. There is also ammonium 
which is not an element, but a combination of nitrogen 
and hydrogen ; it acts, however, like an alkali metal. 

When an element unites with water in a certain way 
it is called a hydrate or hydroxide. The hydrate of 
ammonium — aqua ammonia or ammonia — is known as 
the "Volatile alkali" because it evaporates sO easily. 
It is valuable for use in all cleansing operations — in 
the kitchen, the laundry, the bath, in the washing of 
delicate fabrics, and in other cases where its property 
of evaporation, without leaving any residue to attack 
the fabric or to absorb anything from the air, is in- 
valuable. 

Caustic The hydrates of potassium and sodium are called 

^and caustic potash and caustic soda, respectively, or the 

p*o"ta8h caustic alkalis or "lyes" because they "burn" animal 

tissues. These combine readily with fats to form 

compounds which we call soaps. 

Most of the fats are soluble in turpentine, ether, 
chloroform, naphtha, or kerosene, and somewhat in 
alcohol. That is, the fats are dissolved unchanged, 
just as salt is taken up by water. These form solvents 
for greases more or less valuable according to con- 
ditions. 

If the housekeeper's problem were the simple one 
of removing the grease alone, she would solve it by the 
free use of one of the solvents or bv some of the strone: 



70 



Soap 



CLEANING. 59 

alkalis. This is what the painter does when he is 
called to repaint or to refinish ; but the housewife 
wishes to preserve the finish or the fabric while she 
removes the dirt. She must, then, choose those ma- 
terials which will dissolve or unite with the grease 
without injury to the article cleaned. 

Soap is by all odds the safest and most useful 
cleaning agent. It is made from most of the common 
animal and vegetable fats and oils, as tallow, suet, lard, 
cotton seed oil and cocoanut oil, chemically combined 
with caustic soda or caustic potash. Castile soap is sup- 
posed to be made from olive oil. Rosin soap forms a 
part of all common yellow soap. It lessens the cost 
and makes a good soap for rough work. Silicate of 
soda is sometimes added to cheap soaps. It has some 
cleansing action, but must be regarded as an adulter- 
ant. 

Good soaps are nearly neutral substances because 
the alkali has been neutralized by the fatty acid. The 
coarser grades may contain more or less free alkali. 
All soaps are slightly decomposed w^hen dissolved in 
water. The freed fatty acid produces the milkiness 
seen when a cake of soap is placed in perfectly pure 
water. 

The cleaning action of soaps consists chiefly in 
forming emulsions with oily or greasy substances. ^^ soap 
Cream is an example of a very perfect emulsion. Its 
fat Is in the shape of very finely divided globules and 
because of the whey which surrounds them, the cream 
can be mixed with a very large quantity of water and 



71 



Action 



6o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

show no sign of greasiness. When the whey is sep- 
arated as in churning, the globules of fat come together 
and butter is formed. An emulsion is not a true solu- 
tion, for the particles of fat can be separated by proper 
means from the liquid. 

The soap makes an emulsion with the oily or greasy 
substances holding the dirt, so that both may be 
washed away by the water. A certain proportion of 
free alkali in soap helps the action, but it has a cor- 
rosive effect on many materials. Soap will form 
emulsions with many other materials besides fats and 
oils ; so while water is a very general solvent, soap 
and water will take up many additional substances. 

The housekeeper may be familiar with two kinds of 
>f Soap gQ^p . i-j^rd soaps and soft soaps. Caustic soda makes 
the hard soaps and caustic potash makes the soft 
soaps. 

Caustic potash is derived from wood ashes and a few 
generations ago soft soap was the only laundry soap 
used. Wood ashes were plenty when wood fires were 
universal. Soda-ash was at that time derived from 
sea weeds, and therefore uncommon inland. Early in 
the century a French manufacturer, Leblanc, dis- 
covered a process of making soda-ash from sodium 
chloride or common salt. This quite reversed the con- 
dition of the two alkalis, for now soda-ash is much 
more common, and the manufacture of soap on a large 
scale really began then. Soda-ash is now the cheapest 
form of alkali. Caustic soda is made from soda-ash. 



Kinds 



72 



CLEANING. 6 1 

The terms, soda-ash, and pot-ash have been used ; soda-Ash 
these substances in chemical terms are respectively 
the carbonate of sodium and the carbonate of potas- 
sium. They are chemical compounds made up of car- 
bonic acid and two metals — sodium and potassium. 
When the carbon dioxide, which we have seen is 
formed by the combustion of carbon, is added to water, 
carbonic acid results. This is a very weak acid and 
when it is combined with the very strongly alkaline 
elements, sodium or potassium, the result is an alka- 
line substance. Soda-ash and potash (sometimes called 
pearl-ash) are called alkalis, but they are not nearly 
so powerful as the hydrates of sodium and potassium 
which are commonly called caustic soda and caustic 
potash. 

When soda-ash, wdiich is a white powder, is dis- washing 
solved in hot water and the solution is cooled, crystals 
of the common washing soda are formed. This sub- 
stance is also called "sal soda" and ''soda crystals." 
The crystals contain about 65 per cent of water and 
when exposed to the air, lose some of this water and 
crumble to the white powder, soda-ash. The powder 
is, therefore, stronger than the original crystals. 

Washing soda should never be used in a solid form, 
but should be dissolved in a separate dish, and the 
solution used with judgment. A satisfactory amount 
is about two ounces of the dry soda to a large tub of 
water, and well dissolved before the clothes are put in. 
Nearly all of the 'Svashing compounds" on the market 



Soda 



73 



62 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Borax 



Hard 

Water 



Temporary 
Hardness 



Permanent 
Hardness 



depend upon the washing soda for their efficiency, and 
sometimes they contain nothing else. 

Borax is a useful alkali, milder than washing soda, 
but effective as a cleaner, disinfectant, and bleacher. 
It is more expensive than either of the others de- 
scribed, and because of its weaker alkaline action, more 
of it must be used to produce a given result. It is 
much less irritating to the skin and less injurious to 
fabrics than soda, so for some uses its additional cost 
may be justified. Caustic potash or ''lye" is too strong 
an alkali to use on fabrics, but is valuable to put down 
the kitchen sink drain to free it from grease. The 
soap made in the drain will be washed out by water. 
Solid washing soda may be used for the same pur- 
pose. 

In the laundry the composition of water is im- 
portant. Water for domestic use is either hard or soft, 
according as it contains a greater or less quantity of 
certain soluble salts — usually compounds of lime or 
magnesia, which have been taken up by the water while 
passing through the soil. 

When the hardness is caused by calcium carbonate 
(carbonate of liiiie) it is called ''temporary" hardness, 
because it may be overcome by boiling. The excess of 
carbon dioxide is driven off and the carbonate of lime 
separates out. The same separation is accomplished 
by the addition of sal soda, borax, or ammonia. 

When the hardness is due to the sulphates and 
chlorides of magnesia or lime, it cannot be removed 



74 



CLEANING. 



63 



by boiling. It is then known as "permanent" hard- 
ness. Public water supplies are sometimes softened 
before delivery to the consumer by the addition of 
slaked lime, which absorbs the carbon dioxide, and 
the previously dissolved carbonate separates out. 

Soft water is needed in laundry work both for 
cleanness and economy, and water not naturally soft 
should be softened by boiling or by the addition of the 
before mentioned substances. 

When soap is added to the hard water, it is decom- 
posed by the water, and the new compound formed by 
the union of the lime and magnesia with the fatty acid 
of the soap is insoluble, and therefore settles upon any 
article with which it comes in contact. Until all the 
lime has been taken out, there will be no action be- 
tween the soap and the dirt. Therefore, large quanti- 
ties of soap must be wasted. It has been estimated that 
each grain of carbonate of lime per gallon causes an 
increased expenditure of two ounces of soap per 100 
gallons, and that the increased expense for soap in a 
household of five persons where such hard water is 
used might amount to five or ten dollars yearly. 

This "lime soap," although insoluble in water, will 
dissolve readily in kerosene or naphtha, for which rea- 
son, kerosene will be found very effective for cleaning 
bowls or the bath tub when the surface has become 
coated from the use of hard water and soap. 

Hard waters produce certain undesirable effects in 
cooking processes. The cooking of beans and similar 



Soap and 
Hard Water 



Cookinig with 
Hard Water 



75 



64 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

vegetables should soften the cellulose and break up 
the compact grains of starch. It is difficult to cook 
vegetables in hard water, for the legumin of the vegeta- 
ble forms an insoluble compound with the lime or 
magnesia of the water, and the cellulose is softened 
with great difficulty. Hard water does not readily 
extract the flavor from tea and coffee, and therefore 
much more of either must be used to get the desired 
strength. 

Dish During this discussion of cleansing agents, let us 
Washing i^opc that the breakfast dishes have been soaking in 
water, after having carefully scraped or ''scrapped" 
so as to save soap in washing and to keep the water 
as clean as possible. Plenty of hot water and soap 
with clean, dry towels is the secret of quick and easy 
work. If the hard water is used, it may be softened 
for the soap is doing no good unless there is a strong 
suds. 

To save the appearance of the hands, use a good 
white soap, free from alkali, and soften the water with 
borax. 

Glass, silver ware, china and kitchen ware take their 
turn. All should be rinsed in hot ^yater to remove 
the soap and heat the dishes so that they will drain 
nearly dry and thus make wiping easy. In the dish 
washing machine used in large hotels and restaurants, 
the dishes are simply washed with soapy water and 
rinsed in very hot water while in such a position that 



76 



CLEANING. 



65 



they drain perfectly. They dry completely and re- 
quire no wiping. 



Fig. 16. 







Pig. 16. Dish Washing Machine Used in Large Hotels and 
Restaunuits. 

Experiment. Wash a plate and dip it in very hot 
water, then place it so that all parts will drain. Ob- 
serve if it dries coinpletely. See if you can wash the 
dishes in this manner with very little wiping and if 
time would thus be saved. 



77 



66 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



structure 
of Fibres 



Cotton 



Wool 



Linen 



CHEMISTRY OF THE LAUNDRY 

If the morning happens to be Monday, the washing 
is probably in progress in the average American fam- 
ily. The mistress should understand the chemical 
principles involved and every detail of the work, in 
order that the best results may be secured, and that 
the clothes may not be harmed. 

The fibres of cotton, silk, and wool vary greatly 
in their structure and a knowledge of this structure 
as shown under the microscope, may guide to proper 
methods of treatment. Fig. 17. 

The fibres of cotton, though tubular, become much 
flattened during the process of manufacture, and under 
the microscope, show a characteristic twist, with the 
ends gradually tapering to a point. It is this twist, 
which makes them capable of being made into a firm, 
hard thread. 

The wool fibre, like human hair, is marked by trans- 
verse divisions, and these divisions are serrated. These 
teeth become curled, knotted or tangled together by 
rubbing, by very hot water, or by strong alkalies. 
This causes shrinking, which should be prevented. 
When the two fibres are mixed, there is less opportun- 
ity for the little teeth to become entangled and there- 
fore there is less shrinkage. 

Linen fibres are much like cotton, with slight notches 
or joints along the walls. These notches serve to hold 
the fibres closely together, and enable them to be 
felted to form paper. Linen, then, will shrink, though 



78 



THE LAUNDRY. 



67 



not so much as wool, for the fibres are more wiry and 
the teeth much shorter. 

Silk fibres are perfectly smooth and when rubbed, 
simply slide over each other. This produces a slight 
shrinkage in the width of woven fabrics. 

Cotton and wool differ 
greatly in their resistance 
to the treatment of chemi- 
cals. Cotton is very little 
affected by a solution of the 
alkalies, when the cloth is 
well rinsed. If the alkali is 
not removed completely, 
however, it becomes very 
concentrated when the cloth 
dries, and as it generally 
acts for a long time, the 
fibre may be weakened or 
"tendered." 

Cold dilute solutions of the acids have no very great 
effect on cotton, provided always that they are com- 
pletely washed out. Strong or hot solutions of acids 
have a very decided deleterious action, and even a very 
minute quantity of acid dried on the goods tenders the 
fibre badly. 

Wool resists the acids well, but is much harmed 
by the action of the alkalies. A warm solution of caus- 
tic soda or caustic potash will dissolve wool quickly 
and completely. The carbonates, like washing soda. 




Textile Fibres Much 
Magnified. 
a, Wool; b, Mohair; C, Cot- 
ton; d, Silk; e, Linen, 



Silk 



Chemical 
Action 
on Fibres 



79 



68 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



have not such a decidtd effect, but they make the wool 
harsh and less flexible. 

Linen lesembles cotton and silk is much like wool 
in the resistance to chemical action, but the linen is 
more affected by the alkalies than cotton and silk is 
more acted on by acids than wool. 




© 




C^ 



Q> 



Fig. 18. Sections of Ordinary and Mercer- 
ized Cotton Fibres. 



Mercerizatioq 



Soaking 



That cotton fibre is not seriously affected by alka- 
lies is shown by the process of mercerization. In this 
process, patented by Mercer in 1852, the cotton threads 
are treated with a strong solution of caustic soda 
while under tension. The fibres lose their twisted and 
hollow shape and become more rod-like and nearly 
solid, as shown in Fig. 18. Thv threads have a tend- 
ency to shrink considerably, but are prevented by the 
tension. This and the method of manipulation gives 
the mercerized fabric the characteristic gloss some- 
what resembling silk. 

In laundering, the best practice seems to be to 
soak the white clothes at least, in cold water or in 
luke-warm suds. The badly soiled portions may be 
soaped and rolled tightly to keep the soap where it is 



80 



THE LAUNDRY. 69 

most needed. The water should be well softened, and 
a very little extra washing soda solution may be 
added. The soaking loosens the dirt and saves much 
rubbing and hence wear on the clothes. It is probable 
that the cleansing wears out the articles which make 
up the weekly wash more than the actual use they re- 
ceive. 

After washing the clothes, they may be wrung out BoiUnr 
and put into a boiler of cold water, which is then 
heated and boiled briskly for a little while. Whether 
to boil, or not to boil the clothes depends largely 
upon the purity of the materials used. If there is any 
iron in the water, or elsewhere, it is sure to be de- 
posited on the goods, thus producing yellowness. Soap 
may be added to the clothes in the boiler, or borax 
,may be used, allowing a tablespoonful to every gallon 
of water. The borax serves as a bleacher and as an 
aid in the disinfection of the clothes. One great ad- 
vantage of boiling is the additional disinfection which 
this insures. 

After washing, the clothes should be thoroughly Ripaing 
rinsed. They cannot be clean otherwise and proper 
rinsing is essential to successful washing. The more 
thoroughly the wash water is removed between rins- 
ings, the less number of rinsings will be required to 
give the same results. 

Bluing is frequently added to the last rinsing water 
to counteract, or cover up, any yellowness. A light 
blue appears to the eye whiter than a light yellow. 



Bluing 



81 



70 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



stains 



Washing 

Colored 

Goods 



Washing 
Woolens 



The color is, however, .Q'iti}- in comparison with white. 
Most of the H(]ui(l bhiing now on the market contains 
Prussian Blue, a compound of iron. This compound 
is decomposed by soap and alkalies, when the goods 
are next washed, making a slight yellow stain of iron 
on the cloth. Frequent repetitions of this action may 
give a distinctly yellow shade to the white goods. The 
indigo blue used a generation or more ago did not 
have this objection. It is said that white goods which 
have never been blued, never require bluing. 

Stains and all special deposits should be removed 
before the goods are treated with soap or soda, as 
these frequently set the stains. Hot water will spread 
any grease and also set many stains*, so the clothes 
when not soaked, should be wet thoroughly in cold 
or luke-warm water before washing. 

Colored goods and prints require more delicate treat- 
ment than white goods. If they are soaked, the water 
should be cold and contain very little soap and no 
soda. Only dissolved soap should be used in wash- 
ing them, and this should be of good quality, free 
from alkali. They should be dried with the wrong- 
side out and in the shade, for direct sunlight fades 
colors about twenty times as much as reflected light. 

All wool goods require the greatest care in wash- 
ing. The different waters used should be of the same 
temperature and never too hot to be borne comfortably 
by the hand. 



82 



Soap 
Solution 



THE LAUNDRY, 71 

The soap used should be in the form of a thin soap 
sohition. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric and 
only a good, white soap, free from rosin, is allow- 
able. Make each water slightly soapy and leave a 
very little in the fabric at the end, to furnish a 
dressing as nearly like the original as possible. 

Many persons prefer ammonia or borax in place 
of the soap. For pure white flannel, borax gives the 
best satisfaction on account of its bleaching quality. 
Whatever alkali is chosen, care should be exercised in 
the quantity taken. Only enough should be used to 
make the water very soft. 

The fibres of wool collect much dust upon their Brushing 
tooth-like projections and this should be thoroughly 
brushed or shaken off before the fabric is put into 
water. All friction should be by squeezing, not by 
rubbing. Wool should not be wrung by hand. Either 
run the fabric smoothly through a wringer or squeeze 
the water out, that the fibres may not be twisted. 
Wool may be well dried by rolling the article tightly 
in a thick dry towel or sheet and squeezing the whole 
till all moisture is absorbed. Wool should not be al- 
lowed to freeze, for the teeth will become knotted 
and hard. Above all, the drying should be accom- 
plished quickly, and in short, the les? time that is 
taken in washing, rinsing, and drying, the less will 
be the shrinkage and the better will be the result. 



83 



starching 



Cooked 
Starch 



ITncooked 
Starch 



72 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

Some of the clothes are starched. This in addition 
to making them stififer and giving them a better ap- 
pearance helps to keep them clean longer. Practically 
all the household starch on the market is corn starch, 
although in the textile industries and large laundries, 
wheat, potato and rice starches are used. Corn starch 
has the greatest stiffening effect, but wheat starch and 
rice starch penetrate better and give a more flexible 
finish. 

To make cooked starch for ordinary work, wet ^4 
cup with % cup of water and pour on one quart of 
boiling water. Boil thoroughly till clear. Use double 
the quantity of starch for stiff starching. Borax may 
be added — J^ to i level tablespoon to a quart — to in- 
crease the gloss and penetrability and to prevent the 
iron from sticking. Lard, wax or paraffine is some- 
times cooked with die starch for the same purpose — ^ 
tablespoon to a quart. 

For very stiff starching, as for collars, the thick 
paste should be rubbed thoroughly into the goods and 
the excess wiped off with a damp cloth, after which the 
goods is dried before a fire. 

'The prepared starches, to be used cold, contain 
borax. This may just as well be added to cheaper 
preparations. As the uncooked starch depends upon 
the heat of the iron to swell and stiffen it, a hotter 
iron is required than with boiled starch. 

For producing an ecru shade in curtains, coffee is 
sometimes added in quantity to give the desired color. 
A solution of gum arabic is sometimes used to stiffen 



84 






A. METHOD OF FOLDINo^ DRESSES, SHIRTS AND SHEETS 
OR TABLii. CLOTHS 



85 




.vuLii 










^^ 





METHOD OF FOLDING UNDERCLOTHES 



ORDER OF IRONING 

Night Dresses: 

1 — embroidery, 2— sleeves, 3— yoke, 4— body. 
Drawers: 

1— trimming, 2— tucks, 3— body, 4— band. 
Skirts: 

1— ruffle, 2— hem, 3— body. 
Shirt Waists: 

1 — cuff, 2 — collar band, 3 — sleeves, 4 — yoke, 5 — back, 6 — front. 

(From "The Laundry," by Flora Rosp; Bulletin of the Cornell Reading 
Course for Farmers' Wives, Ithaca, N. Y.) 



86 



THE LAUNDRY, 



73 



dark colored clothes which would show the white 
color of the starch. 



THE REMOVAL OF STAIN 

Whenever possible, stains should be removed when 
fresh. If the staining substance is allowed to dry on 
the cloth, its removal is always more difficult, and 
sometimes a neglected spot or stain cannot be removed 
without damage to the cloth. 

The nature of the spot must be known before the 
best substance to dissolve and remove it can be chosen. 
To remove grease spots, solvents of grease should 
be chosen, though we may remove such spots some- 
times by causing the grease to form an emulsion with 
soap and thus be removed, or the grease may be made 
into a soap with ammonia or washing soda and thus 
dissolved and removed in water. The first of the three 
methods is, as a rule, the best. Grease will dissolve 
readily in benzine, naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, ether, 
and chloroform and somewhat in turpentine and hot 
alcohol. Ether and chloroform are the best solvents, 
but they are more expensive and not much more ef- 
fective than naphtha. 

Caution! All of the solvents for grease are In- 
flammable and some are explosive, so that they should 
never be used near a fire or light. Work with them 
should be done in the day time and preferably out of 
doors. 



Grease 
Spots 



Precautions 



87 



74 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



A^bsorbenta 



Bluing 
Stains 



In applying any of these solvents to grease spots 
in fabrics, a cloth should be placed underneath the 
stain to absorb the excess of liquid containing the 
dissolved grease. The spot should be rubbed from 
the outside towards the center until dry. This will 
tend to distribute the solvent and prevent the formation 
of a ring where the liquid stops. It is well to apply 
the solvent on the wrong side of the fabric. Old spots 
of any kind may require long treatment. For this a 
little lard may be rubbed into the spot and left for 
some time, then the whole may be dissolved by naphtha 
or washed out with soap or ammonia. 

Spots of grease on carpet or heavy material may be 
treated with absorbents. Heat will assist by melting 
the grease. Fresh grease spots may often be removed 
by placing over the spot a clean piece of blotting 
paper and pressing the spot with a warm iron. French 
chalk or whiting may be moistened with naphtha and 
spread over the spot. When all is dry, brush off the 
absorbent. The absorption method may be used in 
many other cases, moistening with cleansing agent 
which will not harm the material treated. 



Bluing spots may frequently be removed by soak- 
ing in strong ammonia water. Alcohol or ammonia 
will remove grass stains, and an old remedy is to smear 
the stains with molasses before the article goes into 
the wash. The acids in the molasses seem to have 
the desired effect on the grass stains. 



88 



STAINS. 



75 



Fresh stains of coffee, tea or fruit may be removed 
by hot water. Stretch the stained part over an earth- 
en dish and pour boiling water upon the stain until it 
disappears. It is some times better to sprinkle the 
stain with borax and soak in cold water before ap- 
plying the hot water. Old, neglected stains of coffee, 
fruits, cocoa, etc., will have to be treated with some 
bleaching agent. In many cases, it is not possible to 
remove them without severely damaging the cloth. 

Mildew causes a spot of a totally different char- 
acter from any we have considered. It is a true mold, 
and like all plants, requires warmth and moisture for 
its growth. When this necessary moisture is furnished 
by any cloth in a warm place, the mildew grows upon 
the fibres. During the first stage of its growth, the 
mold may be removed, but in time, it destroys the 
fibres. 

Strong soapsuds, a layer of soft soap, and pulver- 
ized chalk, or one of chalk and salt, are all effective 
if, in addition, the moistened cloth be subjected to 
strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches the 
fibres. Bleaching powder or Javelie water may be 
tried in cases of advanced growth, but success cannot 
be assured. 

Some of the animal and vegetable oils may be taken 
out by soap and cold water or dissolved in naphtha, 
chloroform, ether, etc. Mineral oil stains are not sol- 
uble in any alkaline or acid solutions. Kerosene will 



Coffee and 
Fruit Stai.is 



Mildew 



Vaseline Stains 



89 



70 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Paint 



Ink Spots 



Indelible 
Ink 



evaporate in time. Vaseline stains should be soaked 
in kerosene before water and soap touch them. 

Paints consist mainly of oils and some colored earth. 
Spots of paint, then, must be treated with something 
that will take out the oil, leaving the insoluble color- 
ing matter to be brushed off. Turpentine is most 
generally useful. 

Spots of varnish or pitch may be dissolved by the 
use of the same solvents as paint. Alcohol is also one 
of the best solvents here. 

Spots made by food substances are greasy, sugary, 
or acid in their nature. Whatever takes out the grease 
will generally remove the substance united with it, 
as the blood in meat juices. Sugar is dissolved by hot 
water, so sticky spots are best removed with this. 

Ink spots are perhaps the worst that can be encoun- 
tered, because of the great uncertainty of the composi- 
tion of inks of the present day. When the character 
of an enemy is known, it is a comparatively simple 
matter to choose the weapons to be used against him, 
but an unknown enemy must be experimented upon 
and conquest is uncertain. 

Indelible inks formerly owed their permanence to 
silver nitrate. Now many are made from aniline black 
solutions and are scarcely aftected by any chemicals. 
The silver nitrate inks become dark in the sun by a 
photographic process. ]\Iany silver salts, and sonie 
salts of other metals, change in color in a bright light. 



90 



Ink 



STAINS. 77 

Silver nitrate inks may be removed by bleaching 
powder solutions. The chlorine in this replaces the 
nitric acid forming white silver chloride. This will 
darken if not at once removed, but will dissolve in 
strong ammonia water or a solution of hyposulphite of 
soda. This last salt, much used by photographers, 
commonly called "hypo," will often dissolve the stain of 
indelible ink without the use of the bleaching fluid 
and is less harmful to the fibres. Some inks contain 
carbon in the form of lamp black which is not affected 
by any chemicals which can be used. 

The old fashioned black ink is a compound called writing 
the gallo-tannate of iron. It is made by adding a solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron to a water solution of nut 
galls. A little gum solution is added to make the ink 
of better consistency. This kind of ink is removed 
by the addition of a warm solution of oxalic acid 
or muriatic acid drop by drop, and this finally well 
rinsed out. Of course some materials will be injured 
by the acids, so this method must be used with cau- 
tion. Lemon juice and salt will sometimes remove 
the spot and is safe. Cover the spot with salt, wet with 
lemon juice, and spread in the sun. Bleaching powder 
solution and acid will frequently destroy any ink stain 
of long standing which acids alone will not affect. 

Some ink stains are removed when fresh by clear, 
cold, or tepid water — skimmed milk is safe and often 
effective. If the stain is allowed to soak in the milk 



91 



78 



ciii'M/sTRV oj- riiii iiorsi-iioi.ii 



Ink on 

Carpets 



Colored 
Inks 



Iron 
Rust 



until ilk- milk soiiis. the result is ot"tcu better. Some- 
times the ink will dissolve out if a piece of ice is- laid 
on the spot and blotting paper under it. The blotting 
paper absorbs the water and should be often changed. 

Ink on heavy materials like carpets and draperies 
may be treated with some absorbent to keep the ink 
from spreading. JJits of blotting paper, cotton batting, 
meal, llour, sawdust, etc., iiiay be used and removed 
as long as an\- ink is absorbed, then go over the spot 
repeatedly with a lemon freshl\- cut, and linally rinse 
with cold or tepid water. If an ink stain has worked 
through varnish into the wood, turpentine will usually 
remove the spot. 

Of late colored inks are generally prepared from 
aniline colors. These are made from substances pro- 
duced in the distillation of coal tar. The colors are 
.soluble in water, and by dissolving them and adding 
to the mixture some thickening substance, different 
colored inks are produced. They are rather dil^cult 
to remove successfully, but bleaching powd^^r solution 
will frequently destroy them. 

The red iron-rust spots must be treated with acid. 
These are the results of oxidation — the union of the 
oxygen of the air with the iron in the presence of mois- 
ture. The oxide formed is deposited upon the fabric 
which furnishes the moisture. Ordinary "tin" uten- 
sils are made from iron coated with tin, which soon 
wears off, so no moist fabric should be left long in tin 
unless the surface is entire. 



92 



STAINS. 



79 



Iron-nist is, then, an insoluble oxide of iron. The 
chloride of iron is soluble and so hydrochloric acid is 
used to remove the rust. The best method of apply- 
ing the acid is as follows : Fill an earthen dish two- 
thirds full of hot water and stretch the stained cloth 
over this. Have near two other dishes with clear 
water in one and ammonia water in the other. The 
steam from the hot water will furnish the heat and 
moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a little 
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid on the stain with a medi- 



RemoTiAf 
Bust 




FIG. 19. REMOVING IRON RUST STAIN. 

cine dropper. Fig. 19. Let it act a moment, then 
lower the cloth into the hot water. Repeat till the 
stain disappears. Rinse carefully in the clear water 
and, finally, immerse in the ammonia water, that any 
excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric pro- 
tected. 

Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight 
stain, probably because a little hydrochloric acid is 
formed from their union. 



Salt and 
Lemon Juic« 



93 



8o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

Ink stains on colored goods are often impossible 
to take out without also removing part of the dye. The 
ink must be washed out in cold water before it dries ; 
any slight stain remaining can, perhaps, be removed 
wath a weak acid like lemon juice without harming 
the color. 

BLEACHING 

When the clothes are washed, the mistress likes 
to have them hang out of doors where the air and 
sunshine can dry them. She is glad when the white 
articles can be spread on the grass, knowing that they 
will be made whiter by Nature's bleaching agent. 
The sunlight is the chief agent in this bleaching and the 
articles are laid flat on the grass so that the rays of 
light will strike in a more perpendicular direction. 
There are also other devices for bleaching, among 
which are the fumes of burning sulphur, chloride of 
lime (bleaching powder) and Javelle water. 

Originally all bleaching of linen and cotton was 
done out of doors by the action of oxygen, water, and 
sunlight. In these days of great factories, this process 
is impossible for lack of space ; but various artificial 
bleaching stuffs have been discovered whose action is 
satisfactory if skilfully used. 
Bleaching Chloriuc is a gas which has remarkable readiness to 

combine with other bodies. It is even more energetic 
than oxygen. By its action upon them, chlorine de- 
stroys the greater number of coloring substances. Be- 



94 



BLEACHING. 



8i 



cause of its liarmful action upon the human body, 
chlorine gas itself cannot be used in factories or in the 
household, but the compound which chlorine forms 
with lime (oxide of calcium) known as chloride of 
lime or bleaching powder, is safe and effective. 

The principal coloring matters are composed chiefly 
of the elements carbon and hydrogen and some of the 
metals. If a substance which makes new combination 
with the elements present is brought in contact with 
these colors, the new compounds thus produced may 
be colorless. The element chlorine does just this. 
It can be set free from chloride of lime by weak acids, 
and will dissolve very readily n water when so set 
free. By dipping colored cloth into a weak solution 
of chloride of lime and acid, many colors and stains 
are at once destroyed. But the energy of the chlorine 
is not stopped by this process. Having destroyed 
the color, the bleaching powder attacks the fibres of 
the goods, unles the cloth is at once placed in some 
solution wdiich can neutralize the bleaching powder. 
There are several such easily obtained and used. The 
use of bleaching powder in the household is frequently 
of dubious success for lack of this precaution. Am- 
monia water will perform this action satisfactorily, 
since the harmless soluble salt, ammonium chloride, 
is formed ; hypo-sulphite of soda is also effective. 

Chloride of lime loses strength rapidly if exposed 
in an open vessel. It absorbs water and carbon di- 



Action of 
Chlorine 



Chloride 
of Lime 



95 



82 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Javelle 
Water 



oxide from the air, grows damp and the chlorine gas 
escapes. 

In using bleaching powder, mix one or two tea- 
spoonfuls with a pint of cold water in an earthen- 
ware dish. The effective part of the powder will be 
dissolved, so let the mixture settle, or strain off the 
liquid through a cloth. Add a little vinegar or a few 
drops of acetic acid to the nearly clear solution and 
use at once. 

Javelle water is also used as a bleaching agent. It is 
very like bleaching powder, except that soda replaces 
the lime. It is prepared by dissolving one pound of 
washing soda in a quart of hot water and adding one 
quarter of a pound of chloride of lime also dissolved 
in a quart of hot water. Let the mixture settle, pour 
off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. It will keep 
for some time. The dregs may be used to scour 
the kitchen floor or to disinfect waste pipes. This is 
very useful in removing stains on white cloth, but 
the addition of some solution to neutralize the action 
is always necessary, just as with bleaching powder. 
The best substance to use for this is hypo-sulphite of 
soda, the "hypo" used in photography, which is quite 
harmless to the cloth. 

Chlorine cannot be used in bleaching fabrics of ani- 

BiSching ^^'^^^ fibre such as wool and silk; it leaves them yellow 

rather than white. For these the fumes of burning 

sulphur, or these fumes dissolved in water must be 



Sulphur 
Dioxide 



96 



BLEACHING. 



83 



used. No special means of destroying the excess of 
sulphur fumes is required. These fumes are a com- 
pound of sulphur and the oxygen of the air and famil- 
iar to every one, in the acid fumes from a burning 
"sulphur match." The article to be bleached must be 
wet, and then hung in some enclosed space above a 
piece of burning sulphur. The sulphur candles, to be 
had at any druggist's, are convenient for this use. 
Fig. 20. The fumes have great affinity for oxygen, 
that is, unite with it easily, and take it from the color- 
ing stul¥s, converting them into colorless ones. This 
method of bleaching is sometimes not permanent. 




FIG. 20. A SULPHUR CANDLE. 



These fumes of sulphur are often used to disinfect 
rooms where there has been sickness. Its power in 
this respect is far less than is generally supposed how- 
ever, and much larger quantities of the gas are re- 
quired for thorough work than are commonly used. 
Chlorine gas is an excellent disinfectant, but is dan- 
gerous to use because of its irritating effect upon the 
throat and lungs. The use of ''chloride of lime" as a 
disinfectant depends upon the fact that chlorirj£ slowly 



Dial) Action 



^7 



84 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Hydrogen 
Peroxide 



Alkalies 
on Paint 



escapes from this substance when it is exposed to the 
air. 

Another bleaching agent of growing importance 
is peroxide of hydrogen. Water is a compound made 
up of one-third oxygen and two-thirds hydrogen. Un- 
der certain conditions, a compound half oxygen and 
half hydrogen may be prepared. This is not very 
permanent as the extra oxygen slowly escapes. This 
extra oxygen has great power as a decolorizer. The 
peroxide is a liquid much like water in appearance 
and is used in bleaching hair, feathers, and ivory. It 
is the safest bleaching agent for the housekeeper to 
work with and may be used on wool and silk as well 
as cotton and linen. 

CLEANING WOODWORK 

In the interior of the house woods are seldom used 
in their natural state. The surface is covered with 
two or more coatings of paint, varnish, etc., which 
add to the wood durability or beauty. The cleaning 
processes are applied to the last coat of finish and 
must not injure this. 

Soft woods are finished with paint, stain, oil, shel- 
lac, varnish, or with two or more of these combined ; 
hardwoods with any of these, and in addition, wax, or 
wax with turpentine, or both with oil. 

All these surfaces, except those finished with wax, 
may be cleaned with a weak solution of soap or am- 
monia, but the continuous use of anv alkali may im- 



98 



in Cleaning 



CLEANING. 85 

pair and finally remove the polish. Refinishing will 
then be necessary. Waxed surfaces are turned dark 
by water. Finished surfaces should never be scoured 
nor cleaned with strong alkalies, like sal-soda, or potash 
soaps. Scouring with these strong alkalies will break 
the paint or varnish and in this way destroy the finish. 

A few drops of kerosene or turpentine on a soft Kerosene 
cloth may be used to clean all polished surfaces. The 
latter cleans them more perfectly and evaporates read- 
ily; the former is cheaper, safer, because its vapor is 
not so inflammable as that of turpentine, and it pol- 
ishes a little while it cleans ; but it evaporates so 
slowly that the surface must be rubbed dry each time, 
or the dust will be collected and retained. The harder 
the rubbing, the higher the polish. 

Outside the kitchen, the woodwork of the house sel- 
dom needs scrubbing. The greasy layer is readily 
dissolved by weak alkaline solutions, by kerosene or 
turpentine, while the imbedded dust is wiped away by 
the cloth. Polished surfaces keep clean longest. If the 
finish be removed or broken by deep scratches, the 
wood itself absorbs the grease and dust, and the stain 
may have to be scraped out. 

CLEANING METALS 

Most metals may be washed without harm in a hot 
alakline solution or wiped with a little kerosene. 
Stoves and iron sinks may be scoured with the coarser 
materials like ashes, emery or pumice ; but copper, pol- 



99 



Tarnish 



86 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

ished steel, or the soft metals, tin, silver, and alumi- 
num require a fine powder that they may not be 
scratched or worn away too rapidly. Metal bathtubs 
may be kept clean and bright with whiting and am- 
monia, if rinsed with boiling hot water and wiped dry 
with soft flannel or chamois. 

Porcelain or soapstone may be washed like metal 
or scoured with any fine material. 

The si)ecial deposits on metals are caused by the 
oxygen and moisture of the air, by the presence of 
other gases in the house, or by acids or corroding 
liquids. Such deposits come under the general head 
of tarnish. 

The metals, or their compounds, in common use 
are silver, copper and brass, iron and steel, tin, zinc 
and nickel. Aluminum is rapidly taking a prominent 
place in the manufacture of household utensils. 

There is little trouble with the general greasy film 
or with the special deposits on articles in daily use, if 
they are washed in hot water and soap, rinsed well and 
wiped drv each time. Yet certain articles of food act 
upon the metal of tableware and cooking utensils, 
forming true chemical salts. 

The salts of silver are usually dark colored and 
Sulphide insoluble in water or in any alkaline liquid which will 
not also dissolve the silver. Whether found in the 
products of combustion, in food, as eggs, in the paper 
or cloth used for wrapi)ing, in the rubber band of a 
fruit jar, or the rubber elastic which may be near the 



100 



Silver 



METALS. 



»7 



silver, sulphur forms with silver a grayish black com- 
pound — a '.ulphide of silver. All the silver sulphides 
are insoluble in water. Rub such tarnished articles, 
before washing-, with common salt. By replacement, 
silver chloride, a white chemical salt, is formed, which 
is soluble in ammonia. If the article be not washed in 
ammonia it will soon turn dark again. With an old or 
deep stain of silver sulphide friction must be used. 

The analysis of many samples of silver polish, 
showed tbem to be made up of either precipitated 
chalk, diatomaceous earth or fine sand. In using them, 
it is necessary to be careful in regard to the fineness 
of material since a few coarse grains will scratch the 
coating of soft silver. In former times the housewife 
bought a pound of whiting for fifteen cents, sifted it 
through fine cloth, or, mixing- it with water, floated off 
the finer portion, and obtained in this way, twelve 
ounces of the same material for three ounces of which 
the modern housewife pays twenty-five cents or even 
more, when she buys it **by the box." 

The whiting may be made into a paste with ammonia 
or alcohol, the article coated with this and left till the 
liquid has evaporated. Then the powder should be 
rubbed off with soft tissue paper or soft cotton cloth, 
and polished with chamois. 

The presence of water always favors chemical 
change. Therefore iron and steel rapidly oxidize in 
damp air or in the presence of moisture. All metallic 
article^ mp^' be protected from such action bv a thin 



Silver 
Polish 



Whiting 



Protecting 
Metals 



101 



88 CIIIMISTKY ()!■ '11 1 li I lOUSr.l lol n. 

oily ro.ilin^. lion .md sh-cl arliclcs iiol in use may l)c 
covered willi a lliin layer of vaseline. 

Kusl ean he hiiiovim! Iioni iron or steel hy kerosene 
if nol loo (jeep. 

'The larnisli on brass or cojjper will dissolve in am- 
monia vvaler, hnl (lie ohjeels larnisli a^ain more (|nick- 
\y than if i)ulislied by friction. 



102 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, 

PART II. 



Read Carefully. Plact- youv name and address on the first 
sheet of tlie test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one 
side of the sheet only. J)o not copy ansivcrs from the lesson 
/>(i/>cr. Use your own words, so that your instructor may kiujw 
thai you understand the subject. Kead the lesson paper a nuni- 
her of times before attempting to answer the (luestioiis. 



1. Name all the substances you can think of which 

are not soluble in water and are soluble in naph- 
tha or benzine. 

2. Does suj^ar neutralize acid chemically? Why? 

3. Tlow is soap made? What is the difference be- 

tween hard and soft soa])? 

4. What is "hard" water? How does it act with 

soa])? How is it softened? 

5. h'.xi)lain how 'Mduin^" may make white clothes 

yellow. 

6. Why remove stains when fresh? Why before 

washinji^? 

7. Why is there danger in usini;- naphtha, benzine, 

and lo some extent alcohol near a light? 

8. TTow do cotton and woolen differ in the effect of 

acids and alkalies upon them? 



103 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

9. What precautions must be taken in bleaching or 
removing stains with chloride of lime solution 
or with Javelle water? 

10. Give a good method of starching and ironing 

clothes. 

11. If possible, try to remove some stain by a method 

given in this lesson and tell of the results. 

12. Describe a good method of washing woolens. 

13. Why does the drying of a little acid or alkali on a 

fabric have a very disastrous effect? 

14. What is your method of washing dishes ? 

15. What can you say of acids, alkalies, salts? 

16. What is "washing soda?" How should it be 

used? When should it no/ be used? 

17. Why does strong soap or washing soda harm 

varnish or paint? 

18. What is the cause of tarnish on metals? How 

can it be removed and prevented ? 

19. What advantages has ammonia for use in the 

laundry ? 

20. Do you understand everything given in this les- 

son paper? Are there any iquestions you would 
like to have answered? 

NoTK. — After completing the test siign j'^our full name. 



104 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



A Day's Chemistry. 
PART III. 



Soda 



CHEMISTRY OF BAKING POWDER 

We will suppose that after the strenuous course of 
cooking, washing, and cleaning outlined for the morn- 
ing, that the housekeeper still has strength to make 
soda biscuits for tea, and we will study the chemical 
action involved. 

One of the first chemical methods of securing car- 
bon dioxide to use in making bread rise, was by putting 
hydrochloric acid and cooking soda together in a dough 
which might be put into the oven before the gas es- 
caped from it. 

Cooking soda is a salt called bi-carbonate of sodium. cooking 
It differs from the ordinary mono-carbonate of soda 
(washing soda) in yielding twice as much carbon diox- 
ide in proportion to the sodium part of the compound. 
The saleratus of our grandmother's time was bi-car- 
bonate of potash, made from wood ashes. The name 
is still used, but at all stores, cooking soda would be 
delivered invariably if saleratus were asked for. The 
true saleratus costs ten times as much as the soda and 
is no more effective. The carbonic acid is easily set 
free by chemical compounds of an acid nature, and 
new chemical compounds result. 



105 



90 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Heating 

Cooking 

Soda 



Early 
Experiments 



Experhncnt. Put a little cooking soda into any 
acid — lemon juice, vinegar, almost any fruit juice — 
and the carbon dioxide will be seen to escape in tiny 
bubbles. Part of the acid unites with part of the soda, 
forming a new salt, and the acid taste will be much 
reduced or lost. 

Part of the carbon dioxide in sodium bi-carbonate 
is driven off by simply heating, leaving ordinary 
sodium mono-carbonate, washing soda. In using this 
process, cooking soda is mixed with the flour. The 
high temperature of the oven drives off carbon dioxide, 
and the bread puffs up. It is light, but yellow in 
color. The sodium carbonate remains in the bread 
and its alkaline nature serves to neutralize the acid 
fluids of the stomach (gastric juice) so that digestion 
of the bread may be retarded. The sodium carbonate 
also acts in some way upon the gluten producing an 
unpleasant odor. 

Among the first methods proposed was one undoubt- 
edly the best theoretically, but very difticult to put in 
practice. This depended upon the liberation of carbon 
dioxide from bi-carbonate of sodium by moans of 
muriatic acid — the method already described. The 
liberation of gas is instantaneous on the contact of 
the acid with the "soda" and even a skilled hand can- 
not mix the bread and place it in the oven without the 
loss of much of the gas. Tartaric acid, the acid phos- 
phates, sour milk (lactic acid), vinegar (acetic acid), 



106 



BAKING POWDER. 



91 



alum, all of which hav^ been used, are open to the 
same objection. 

Cream of tartar is the only acid substance commonly 
used which does not liberate the gas by simple con- 
tact in cold solution. It unites with "soda" only when 
heated, because it is so slightly soluble in cold water. 

Experiment. To illustrate this stir a little soda and 
''cream of tartar" into some cold water in a cup. Ii? 
another cup mix the same amounts of each in warm 
water. Note the difference in the action produced. 

To obtain an even distribution of the gas by thorough 
mixing, cream of tartar would seem to be the best 
medium by which to add the acid, but because there are 
other products which remain behind in the bread in 
using all the so-called baking powders, the healthful- 
ness of these residues must be considered. 

Common salt is the safest residue and perhaps that 
from acid phosphate is next in order. 

The tartrate, lactate, and acetate of sodium are not 
known to be especially hurtful. As the important 
constituent of Seidlitz powders is Rochelle salt, the 
same compound as that resulting from the use of 
cream of tartar and *'soda," it is not likely to be very 
harmful, even in the case of the habitual "soda bis- 
cuit" eater, because of the small quantities taken. 

The various products formed by the chemical de- 
composition of the alum and "soda" are possibly the 
most injurious, as these are sulphates, and are thought 



Cream of 
Tartar 



Injurious 
Products 



107 



92 (7// M//.S'77\')' or Till'. llOVSlillOJ.IX 

t4) l)c I lie Ic.isl readily nl)S(M"l)(Ml sails. 'V\\v salt' of 
"aliiiii" haKiii!.; powder is inn-easiii^, as il is cheaper. 
Tjikiii^ into eonsideiatioii (lien llie advantage j^ivcn 
h\ llie iiis( tliihilil y nf ereain of lariat" in eold vvaler, 
and llie eomparalively litlle danger lioni ils derivative 
- koclu'lle salt — it would seem to be, on the whole, the 
hesi snhstance to add to the soda in older to liberate 
llie i;as. bill the piopoil ions should be eheinieally ex- 
act, since loo niiich alkali would lmi<lcr the process of 
diiMSlion. I leiice bakiiij; powders prepari'd by weif^ht 
and carehilb iiii\e«l, are a i;rcat improvement over 
cream of tartar and "soda" measured separatelv. As 
commonly used, llie proportion of soda should be a 
little less than half. 

LIGHTING 

i'y the time supper is over or even before, diirincT ^ 
lar^e portion of the year davlii:;hi lias i;-one. ( )nr 
grandmothers would have bronL;hl onl the candles. 
Tel haps we shall use a candU' to lii;ht onr wav while 
we can \ the biiller and food into llu' cool cellar. 
Th« Ciindlo The caiidle Ikime altlioiijdi small in :ire.i is l\pical (d 

all llames. I'lame indicales llie bnrnini; o{ a .i;as for 
solid substances in bnrniiiL; siiiipK u;low' and do not 
burn with llame. When wo( d and soft coal burn, 
^ases are set free by heat and these gases burn over the 
betl of fuel. i;i\ini; the llames. 

The ••eiieral form ^^^i the candle llame Is a cone 
wiliest abo\e the basi\ or about at the top of the wick. 
If it is examined larefiillv it will be seen to consist 



It'lmno 



108 



I.ICII I INC. 



93 



of llircc layers, l-'i^. 21. '1 In- iiiUrioi- pari is dark, 
^ivini; oiil no li^lil. 'J lie second is yellow and is the 
Iniiiinons pari, and snrroimdin^' this and most easily 
seen al I lie base, is a very lliiii him- layer. . 

Expcriiiiciil. If a small splint of wood or a match 
he placed across llic lower i)art oi the llanie near the 
wick for a moment, it will he charred where the outer 
layers of ihe tiame have touched it, hut the centre will 
not he chan;;c'd. Press a ])iece of card hoard (piiekly 
down on the flame from above 
and remove it before il is sel on 
(ire, and a riiij^' of scoicIumI paper 
will show the shape of llie hot 
part of the llame. 

The candle consists of hydro- 
carbons (compounds of carbon 
and hydrof^^'n). When a match is 
applied lo llie wick, llie hydrocar- 
bons are melted and the li(pn"d 
rises on the wick by capillary at- 
traction. The heat chanj^cs this to 
j^^as (or vapor) which is set on fire, 
since at the hi^h temj)eratnre it easily unites with the 
oxygen of the air, Tlu re is i)Knty of oxygen present, 
but it is all seized upon by the carbon and hydrogen 
in the outer parts of the column of pas risinj:^ from the 
wick, so that none reaches the centre. The pas diffuses 
outward toward the oxypcn continually, so that the 
innei cone may be regarded as a gas factory. The yel- 




FlK. 21. Flame of u 
Candlf. 



Chnini«lry 
(>r tli<; 
Caiidlc I''lnm<l 



109 



94 



ciiiiMisiKV or 'run iiorsiiiioi.i). 



Nil ( III n 
111 Hiiiiilt" 



FiploNitniH 



I'l lllllNl VA 

M 1 1 ( iirot) 



low Ii).;lil is caused l)\ llic iiuaiulcsrciUH' or ^lo\viii}_; of 
small particles of carhon. healed lo "wliile heal." 
riii'se are sel lice Ikuii the (( iiii|>( tiiiids where llie llaiiie 
is vei \ hoi and lhe\ areiml \(| niiiled w ilh oxy^iMi. 

I'daines "sum >l..e." (hal is. llnow oil iiiihiiiiied car 
hoii wiieii lhei«' is an iiisiillieieiil sn|)|il\ ol oxyiM-ii. 
Any device which coiislaiilly niiews a steady sii|)|)lv ol 
air (with oxygen) will make the llame l)iirii hellef. 
'The chimiie\' ol" a lamp does this h\ |)fotect iiii; the 
llaiiie liom wind and l)\ makii)!';, enci»»sinL;, and direct- 
ins'. ii|)\\ai(l a tinreiil ol air. The chimnev makes 
llie lamp "draw, " as ihe < liinine\ ol llie honse makes 
the .stove "draw." 

W hen the air is mixeil with an inllammahle j^as ntld 
llie tempeiatmc ol anv part is raised lo the kindliii}.;^ 
point ol ihe i;as, as ha|)pens if a hi;ht is hionidit into 
such a mixlnre, an explosion lakes place. The llanu* 
spicads llnonjdi llu- whole an<l comhinalion ensnes 
e\ei\\\here almt»st instanth. Cireat heat is piodnced 
and the teases expand snddenl\ and with violence. If 
the leases are conlined, the enclosini; walls may he 
hroken h\ Ihe pressmc. ( ontiaclion follows this ex 
])ansion and air i nshes in, piodncini', a second sonnd. 
'The sounds occur so near lo^elhcr as lo L;ivc the im- 
pii'ssion of OIK'. 

In a mixttife of inllammahK- i;as and air iIumt must 
he a certain pi(»|)orlion iA each to i;ivi' conditions which 
will piodiice an explosion. A vcrv small ainoimt of 
j^as in the ait will not explode nndef an\' conditions, 



110 



in: III' IN a. 



9S 



ns wlicil llicrc is ;iii ndor nl co.-il j;;i', in llic room Iroiii 
wliicli no explosion follows even (lion}j;h ;i lij^Iil Ix' 
prcscnl. ( )n llic oilier hand, a niixliire containinj;" a 
larj^r proportion of inl1:nnnial)lc j^'us and a lillle air 
will not explode. 'I lie jnoporlion of air lo i-as in .ni 
explosive niixinre varies in diCferent cases, l)iil in ^^eii 
eral ranges from ahoni Ivvi'ive lo live parts ol air to one 



4^-~ 





I 



\''\K- ~~<I' 'I'Iii- I'^H'im I or win- (illU/r nil II (lilH I'lllllli'. 

part of ^a.^. Il is, of eonis<', never safe lo relv '»n llie 
elianee of llie eoi reet propoilions of ^as and air iiol he- 
in}4 present. 

I''.xplosions sonietinies ocenr by unwise use of kero- 
sene in kindling a (ire in a slov<'. If llie kerosene is 
pom'ed upon a liic alreadv bnrninj.;, eiion_i;li vapor of 
kerosene iiiav I)e piodiieed lo j^ive a disastrous ex|)k)- 
sioii. Soakin<^ wood or pa|)er in kerosene for use as 
kindlings and then lif;hlin^ would produce no such 
dire results. 



96 



CIIIWISTKY Ol' rnii HOUSEHOLD. 



Sftfoty 



Lhiiij)H 



1'^xi)K)si(»Ms ill mines arc usually caused hy a j;^.'U 
called fire (laiuj) and co)nj)()sed of carbon and liydroj^cn. 
When (his escapes fioni ihe coal and beconios mixed 
with ail-, il is vety explosive. li a miner hrinj^s a 
nalscd llame into the mine, the Inc-damp will ij^nite 
and disaster results. A safety lamp was devised hy 
Davy for use in such dangerous places. Tt was found 
that a };as is cooled helow its kindling tempt'ralure in 
passim; throui^h a line wire f;au/.c. 
I,am|»s surrounded hv such a gauze may 
he taken into a mine with conil)arativc 
safety. V\\^. 22. 

The action of the wire p^auzc Upon tlio 
i;as may he studied hy holdim;- over a 
i;as jet a piece of line wire nettinj;'. such 
as is used in window screens, and then 
li^htini; the i;as alM)ve the nelliui;. h^ij;'. 
22a. Il will he seen that the i;as helow 
the neltini; is very slow in i^nitini^, 
since it does not readily hccoun" suflicientlv heated, the 
wire ncttini;- coolinj;- it helow its kindling- point. 

The kerosene lamp L;ives lii'.hl hy Iho principle 
already descrihi-d. The reservoir o.V the lamp corre- 
si)omls to the ciip of melted tallow at the top of the 
candle. 'Vhv oil is drawn to the (oj) ^^{ the wick hy 
capillary attraction, where the heav vaporizes il ; so 
that vapor and not oil is what really burns. The struc- 
ture of (he (lame is precisely like that of the candle, 
all hough its shape diilers, because of the shai)c of the 
wick. 




112 



I ICllTfMG. 



97 



llliiminalin^ j^ns is today llif source of lij;lil in iiiosi (j„,i y 
rily houses. 'I'licrc ,\\c Iwo kinds of ^as iii>\v liir 
nislu'd for lliis imrposc. ( 'oal ^^as is ohlaimd liom 
the dcshiKiivi* dislillalioii of -.(dl coid. Iscccivcis 
i)r rctorls of iron or (ire ( la\' an- Idled willi soil co.d 
and licaled lo i loo" or more. I'lnm lliese iclorls IuIks 
Irad up inlo a larj^c |»ipe callcMl liie hydraulic inani, 



u 



Hydrftii 



Hr»,..rl. 



h 



r.nnitidfir 



C on <t ""»»'"' 








fMm 



FKl. TA. MANUKACTIIIIINO OT COAI, (JAM. 



throtij^h which water is Kepi llowin^. As tlic coal be- 
comes heatc(i, a ininiher of dilTeicnl snhstances aic 
j^iven off, which at this iiiidi tempi r.ilnre are in the 
^^ascolls stale. Some of them diss(»lve in the water 
of the hy(h"anlic main, hnl those needed for ilhnninat 
in^'" ^as are not solnhle and passing" out of the main, 
Ihey travel ihron^di several hmidrecl feet of vertical 
pipe called the (dndens( r, where more vvatei' tcmovcM 
any impnrities which may liave escaped fiom the 
hydraulic main. 



DiNlillnlion 
<tl Ciinl 



113 



98 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Purifying 
Coal Gas 



Aniline 



Water Gas 



The gases are then passed on through numerous 
other devices to remove remaining traces of impurities, 
and arc finally collected in a circular chamber known 
as the gas-holder, from which they are distributed to 
the consumer. Fig. 23. 

If the purification is not perfect, the coal gas will 
contain sulphur compounds, and these on burning pro- 
duce oxide of sulphur, which is further changed by 
moisture and the air into sulphuric acid. The quan- 
tity produced may be very minute and yet in time 
may be sufficient to damage books and fabrics. 

The materials which collect in the hydraulic main 
and the condensers contain many useful substances, 
one of the most valuable being ammonia. Among the 
most interesting substances obtained from coal tar is 
aniline from which beautiful dyes are made. Aniline 
itself is a colorless liquid, but in combination with 
other chemical substances it yields a wide range of 
beautiful colors now used in dyeing. Other useful 
substances obtained from the distillation of coal tar 
are carbolic acid, a disinfectant, and naphthalene 
which is sold in the form of moth balls. 

In some cities what is known as water gas forms 
the basis of the illuminating gas. This is made by 
passing very hot steam over red hot anthracite a>al 
or coke. The oxygen of the water unites with the 
carbon of the coal, forming carbon monoxide — a com- 
pound of one part oxygen and one part carbon — and 
the hydrogen of the water is set free. Both the gases 



114 



LIGHTING. 



99 



thus formed will burn, but in burning they produce a 
colorless flame. It is therefore necessary to mix with 
them some gases containing much more carbon which 
will give light when burning. The mixture is stored 
and distributed like coal gas. 

This gas is cheaper to manufacture in most locali- 
ties, but it contains much more carbon monoxide which 
is a very poisonous gas. Much discussion has arisen 
as to the safety of using w^ater gas and in some places 
its manufacture is forbidden by law. 

The destructive distillation of vegetable and animal 
life in the depths of the earth, caused by the great 
heat within the earth, has in some places given rise 
to petroleum and natural gas. The gas gave a cheap 
and convenient fuel, but unfortunately the supply is 
becoming rapidly exhausted. 

An illuminating gas of growing importance today 
is acetylene. This is a compound of carbon and hydro- 
gen and is prepared by the action of water upon cal- 
cium carbide, which is a compound of carbon and the 
element calcium. Calcium carbide is manufactured in 
large quantities at Niagara Falls where pure lime 
mixed with powdered charcoal is fused at an intense 
heat. A dark gray crystalline solid results which, 
when mixed with water, produces acetylene gas and 
slaked lime. 

Acetylene is a colorless gas of characteristic odor, 
soluble in water, and explosive if mixed with air. 
With an ordinary burner it makes a yellowish smoky 



Natiiral 
Gas 



Acetylene 



115 



KM) 



riir.MiSTKY or 'rim iiovseiiold. 



Aoetylene 
OoiifiialorH 



flame, l)iil willi .'i j)r()|)iMly conslniclcd biirmT, it ^ivos 
a brilliantly white li^lit, very like sunlight. Colors 
appear at their true values seen in this \\\!}\{. The 
flame is an intensely hot one. In acetylene burners 
the q-as escapes through two very minute holes directed 
oblicjuely towards each other, as shown in Im^-. 24. 





FKJ. 21. A( RTYLRNR CAS lU'UNIORS. 

The ^as has been somewhat in disicpntc because of 
lacl': of a suitable arrangement for making and storing 
it. Many generators are upon the market, it is true, 
but very few of these are really safe. As soon as a 
reliable one is obtainable, the ^as will be widely used 
for lijj^htinj^-. It may also be used for cookinj.^, but at 
present is rather expensive. ( )ne form of p^encrator 
is illustrated in b'ij^. 25. The calcium carbide in 
lumps is fed automatically into water as louf^ as the 
^as is used. When the storaj^^e tank is nearly full the 
su])ply of car1)ide is automatically shut off. In an- 
other style, which is also aut(jmatic, water is fed on 
t(^ the lum|)S of carbide. Roth st^'les have their advo- 
cates, but the lump fei'd generator is most ^^enerally 
recommended. The apparatus costs from about $65.00 
for a 10 lii^ht plant to $.^(X3.0() for a 100 liqht plant. 



LIGHTING. 



101 



A cheaper gas than acetylene is gasoline gas, some- 
times called carbnretted air gas because it is com- 
mon air impregnated with the vapors of gasoline. It 
burns with a rich, bright flame similar to coal gas and 



Oasolind 
Gau 




Fig. 25. Acetylene fJuH Generator and Storage Tank. 

is conducted through pipes and fixtures in the same 
manner. It may be used in an ordinary gas stove. 

The gas machine consists of a generator containing 
evaporating pans, an automatic air pump operated by 



117 



102 



CHEMISTRY Of THE HOUSEHOLD. 



a heavy weight or by a water motor, together with 
a regulator or mixer. The general arrangement is 
shown in Fig. 26, the generator being entirely outside 
the building in which the gas is used. All such ma- 
chines require intelligent care, for several disastrous 



Oxide of 
Calcium 




FIG. 2G. GASOLINK GAS PLANT. 

explosions have taken place w^hen such care has not 
been given to the apparatus. 

LIME. 

One of the common chemical substances found about 
the country house at least is quick lime, used for 
whitewash and as a deodorizer. 

The term lime usually means the oxide of the element 
calcium. Its commonest compound is calcium carbon- 
ate which is found in nature as limestone, chalk, mar- 
ble, coral, shells, and several other familiar substances. 
Calcium is also found combined with sulphur and 



118 



Lime 



LIME. 103 

oxygen in the compound calcium sulphate, which is 
the mineral gypsum from which plaster of Paris is 
made. Bones contain a considerable amount of cal- 
cium phosphate and o^gg shells, calcium carbonate. 

Lime, the oxide of calcium, is made by heating Qui^k 
broken pieces of limestone in furnaces called lime kilns. 
The calcium carbonate as a compound is broken up, 
carbon dioxide gas being given off and calcium oxide 
left. This freshly formed oxide is called "quick lime," 
and when it is exposed to moist air, it attracts water 
and changes to a form called chemically, calcium 
hydroxide and, commonly, '^slaked lime." Quick lime 
may be used to dry the air of damp cellars, etc., because 
of this property. The process of slaking the lime is 
also accomplished by treating quick lime with water. 
When this is done, much heat is evolved and the hard 
lumps crumble to a soft powder and increase consider- 
ably in bulk. The rise in temperature shows that 
chemical change is taking place. 

Slaked lime will dissolve slightly in water, yield- 
ing lime-water. This is a mild alkali and has several water 
household uses. It may be prepared by pouring two 
quarts of boiling v^^ater over about a cubic inch of 
unslaked lime. Stir it thoroughly and let it stand over 
night ; in the morning pour off the liquid and treat 
the sediment with hot water a sc^cond time. When the 
sediment has again settled, pour off the clear liquid 
and bottle this. It is mixed with milk and fed to 
young children and invalids to prevent acidity of the 



119 



Lime 



104 



CHEMISTRY 01' THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Mortar 

and 

Plaster 



Hydraulic 
Cement 



Stomach and make the milk more easily digested. 
Lime-water and oil form one of the best remedies for 
burns. The alkali of the lime neutralizes tlie acid 
nature of the burn. 

Mortar is made of slaked lime and sand. When 
this is spread upon the walls, the lime slowly absorbs 
carbon dioxide, always present in the air, and changes 
to carbonate of lime. The water is given off into the 
air (evaporates) and the mass becomes hard. Of 
course the surface becomes carbonate sooner than the 
deeper parts be-cause this has closer contact with the 
air, and it therefore takes considerable time for all the 
plaster to harden. The water contained in the mortar 
soon dries, but while the mortar is becoming hard, 
more water is continually formed in the chemical pro- 
cess, so that it requires a long time for the new plaster 
to become quite dry. It is considered unhealthy to 
live in rooms with newly plastered walls. This may 
be because such walls are damp, thus producing damp 
air, or it may be because the moisture in the walls 
interferes with the ])assage of air and other gases 
through the walls — a process little considered as a 
rule, but of great importance. 

Certain varieties of limestone contain other salts, 
such as magnesium carbonate. Lime made from these 
does not soften from exposure to the air. It will, 
however, harden after long contact with water, and 
such substances arc known as cements. Portland cement 
will harden under water. 



120 



LIME. 



105 



Quick-lime is a strong- alkali and does the work of 
such substances. It is used in tanneries in taking 
hair from hides and also in decomposing fats for mak- 
ing candles. When dead animal substance is buried 
in lime, the process of decomposition is greatly hast- 
ened, probably because the lime unites with all water 
present while the strong alkali acts upon the fats re- 
ducing them to soaps of different kinds. 

Whitewash is simple slaked lime mixed with water. 
It is very cleansing in its effects and also gives the ap- 
pearance of freshness and cleanness. When newly ap- 
plied, it is nearly colorless, for the calcium hydrate is 
colorless ; this in the air soon changes to calcium car- 
bonate which is white and opaque. 

CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY. 

In most houses electricity is used for operating the 
door bell, table bell and perhaps the electric gas light- 
ers. We have learned how stored up chemical energy 
is changed into heat and force in the stove and in the 
human body ; but in the electric cell, chemical energy 
is changed into electrical energy. 

If a strip of pure zinc be placed in a weak solution 
of acid, no chemical action takes place. Place in the 
same solution a strip of sheet copper and again no 
action takes place ; but let the copper and the zinc be 
brought in contact, or connected by a copper wire, and 
immediately vigorous chemical action will begin at the 
surface of the copper plate ; bubbles of hydrogen col- 
lecting there. This action is as follows : the zinc dis- 



Whitewash 



A Voltaic 
Cell 



121 



io6 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOED. 



solves in the acid and hydrogen is set free. This 
hydrogen travels with an electric current set up in the 
liquid, passing from particle to particle through the 
liquid until it reaches the copper. Here the hydrogen 
stops, but the electric current passes up the copr^er 
plate and over the wire to the zinc and down thai" "^o 



Leclanche 
Cell 





Fig. 27. A Simple 
Voltaic Cell. 



Tig. JS. A Leclanche 
Cell. 



the liquid and so on. This arrangement of acid and 
metals is called a simple voltaic cell. Fig. 27. 

Other cells are arranged with different liquids and 
solids to gain various ends, and several cells may be 
united by wires between the plates to gain additional 
strength of current. The form of cell often employed 
to work electric bells is the Leclanche cell. Fig. 28. 
This consists of a plate of carbon (or a porous eel) 
containing carbon), in place of the copper, a strip 
or rod of zinc, and a solution of ammonium chloride 



122 



ELECTRICITY, 



107 



which takes the place of the acid. The zinc is not 
affected by the ammonium chloride unless it is con- 
nected with the carbon, but when there is a circuit 
for the electricity, a current is generated. The com- 
mon conductors of the electric current are the metals 
and carbons. 




Fig. 29. A Battery of Cells Counected lu Series. 

The zinc is gradually changed to zinc chloride, at 
the expense of the ammonium chloride, and after a 
time both the zinc and the ammonium chloride must 
be renewed. In renewing the battery^ the jars should be 
cleaned out carefully and the zincs renewed if they 
are completely eaten through. A quarter of a pound 
of pure ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac) is dis- 
solved in enough water to about half fill a jar. When 
the carbon and the zinc are replaced, this will bring 
the liquid up to two inches from the top. The jar 
should not be filled too full. The wires which have 
been disconnected should be reconnected as before. 

For bell work the cells are usually connected up "in 
series," that is, the zinc of one cell is connected to 



Renewing 
Batteries 



Cells in 
Series 



.23 



io8 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Plant Foods 




the carbon of the next, the outside circuit being estab- 
lished between the end carbon and end zinc. Fig. 29. 
If there is a short circuit anywhere 
in the hne, that is, if the current has a 
chance in any way to flow from one 
wire to the other without going 
through the bell or other apparatus, 
the batteries are very quickly ex- 
hausted. 

A modification of this cell has been 
made in which the spaces inside it are 
filled with some spongy mass in the 
pores of which the ammonium chlor- 
Fig. 30. A Dry Cell. i<^^^ ^^ held. These may easily be car- 
ried about without danger of spilling solutions. They 
are called dry cells and when exhausted cannot read- 
ily be renewed. 

PLANTS. 

Most housekeepers have at least a few house plants 
and many have gardens which occupy part of the time 
each day. All foods are directly or indirectly produced 
by plants and it is well to consider also what food these 
living things require in their turn. 

Plants are able to take from the materials forming 
the crust of the earth and from the air surrounding 
them all that they need for their life. The leaves of 
the plants, because of the green substance called 



124 



PLANTS. 



109 



upper Surface 




Bvea.thinq Pores 



Fig. 31. Section Through 
a Leaf. 



chlorophyl, have the power of decomposing carbon 
dioxide gas in a such a way that plants make use of 
the carbon and breathe out oxygen. Fig. 31. This 
separation is very difficult to 
make in the laboratory. The en- 
ergy of sunlight is utilized by the 
plant for this work, for the action 
does not take place in darkness. 
In this way plants return to the 
air the oxygen so necessary for 
animal life and are themselves 
fed in part by the useless and 
even harmful gas exhaled by ani- 
mals. 

The soil on which the plant grows furnishes the 
mineral matter needed. When plant tissues are 
burned, these mineral substances remain as ashes. 
When the ashes of plants are analyzed, they are found 
to consist of potash, soda, iron, and lime in the form 
of phosphates, sulphates, and silicates. Some of these 
substances are present in the soil in inexhaustible 
quantities, but others are less abundant and unless the 
soil be fertilized from time to time, the plant soon 
uses them up. These less abundant substances are 
phosphates-, potash, and nitrogen. 

The lover of house plants has long resorted to 
various expedients for feeding them, and many plant 
foods are now sold and in common use. In using these 
for manuring potted plants, care must be taken not to 



Chlorophyl 



Fertilizers 



125 



no 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Nitrogen and 
Plant Life 



Conservation 



use too much, since strong solutions of them are likclj 
to corrode the roots and kill the plants. 

Although nitrogen is a very abundant element, form- 
ing as has been said, four-fifths of the air, yet it is com- 
paratively rare in forms which are of use to plants. 
As a rule plants cannot take it from the air and there- 
fore require soluble compounds of nitrogen for food. 
One of the most important of these is ammonia. This 
is formed when organic substances decay, its odor 
being very noticeable about stables. Its action with 
acids was described in the pages about cleaning and it 
was explained how it unites with acids to form salts, 
usually soluble. Sulphate of ammonia is the form used 
in agriculture. A very little ammonia in the water 
used on house plants is a good thing for them. 

It has been seen that plants by aid of sunlight breathe 
in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen gas. In 
addition to this, they also breathe as animals do, to a 
slight extent, taking in oxygen and br-eathing out car- 
bon dioxide. This action is more pronounced in dark- 
ness. 

The wonderful principle called conservation is il- 
lustrated by what we know of plant life. Plants in 
growing store up energy derived from the heat and 
light of the sun. When they decay, or are burned, or 
are eaten by animals, exactly the same amount of 
energy is set free and changed into a new form, and 
just as much carbon dioxide as the plant breathed in, 
is given back to the air. A plant which was many 



126 



PLANTS. Ill 

years in growing may be consumed in an hour or may 
decay slowly for years. In either case the same total 
amount of energy is set free, fast or slowly. This 
energy is most apparent as heat. In the growth and 
destruction of the plant both energy and matter have 
been transformed, but neither energy nor matter has 
been made or lost — it has merely taken on a new appear- 
ance. When animals feed on*plants they transform the 
energy of sunHght which is stored up in the plant into 
energy of vitality. In this sense man and all animals 
are "children of the sun." 

CHEMICAL TERMS. 

To explain various chemical and physical phenomena 
the scientists consider that matter consists of certain 
small molecules and atoms. 

If a drop of water be divided and sub-divided in- 
definitely, it is conceivable that a point would come 
when it could not be divided further by physical means. 
This final bit of water is called a molecule. It would 
be far from visible by the most powerful microscope. 
From calculation which we will not go into, we learn 
that a few hundred million ordinary sized molecules 
would cover the space of a pin head. 

If the water is broken up by some powerful force 
as by the electric current, we have seen that two dif- 
ferent substances are obtained — oxygen and hydrogen. 
Consequently the molecules of water must have been 
made up of other still smaller particles and these are 
called atoms. The atoms of a chemical element, then. 



127 



Molecules 



112 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



are of the same kind, for from an elemental substance 
like oxygen, only oxygen can be obtained by any 
means now known. 
Atoms The atoms may be likened to the letters of our alpha- 

bet and the molecules to the words. From a few dif- 
ferent kinds of atoms (letters) can be made a great 
variety of molecules (words). 

TABLE OF COMMON ELEMENTS. 



Aliimiuuiu 


Al 


Iodine 


I 


Oxygen 


O 


Ai'senic 


As 


Iron 


Fe 


Phosphorus 


P 


Barium 


Ba 


(Fei-rum) 




Silicon 


Si 


Boron 


B 


Lead 


Pb 


Silver 


Ag 


. Calcium 


Ca 


(Plumbum) 




(Argentum) 




Carbon 


C 


Magnesium 


Mg 


Sodium 


Na 


Clalorine 


CI 


Manganese 


Mu 


(Nati'ium) 




Copper 


Cu 


Mercury 


Hg 


Sulphur 


S 


Gold 


Au 


(Hy d rargy rum) 


Tin 


Sn 


(Aurum) 




Nickel 


Ni 


(Stannum) 




Hydrogen 


H 


Nitrogen 


N 


Zinc 


Zn 



Chemical 
Signs 



The atoms of an element are all exactly alike. They 
weigh the same and act the same whatever their 
source. Two or more atoms of an element may com- 
bine to make a molecule of that element. The mole- 
cules of a chemical substance are always composed of 
the same number and kind of atoms. 

To express the composition of substances chemists 
have made use of certain abbreviations and signs. To 
indicate an atom of hydrogen the letter H is used and 
for oxygen, the letter O, for nitrogen, N, and so on as 
shown in the table. 

When expressing a compound the number of atoms 
is indicated by sub-script ; for example, Hj means two 



128 



CHEMICAL TERMS. 



"3 



atoms of hydrogen ; H^O expresses two atoms of 
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, and as we have 
found, this is the composition of water ; so H2O is the 
chemist's short way of indicating water. These are 
called chemical formulas. The formula for sulphuric 
acid is H2SO4. This indicates that it is made up of two 
atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur, and four 
atoms of oxygen. The following table gives the chemi- 
cal formulas of many of the chemical substances found 
in the household. 

THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 

All modern science is based upon experiment. 
Chemistry was hardly a science until experimental re- 
search began. It must be confessed that the average 
housewife seldom thinks of making experiments. She 
is apt to remain helpless before any new problem of 
the home without printed directions or advice from 
friends. Very often the easiest and surest way to find 
out a thing is to try it. Use your kitchen as a labora- 
tory. It would, of course, be most unwise to make ex- 
periments on expensive materials. For example, if 
a stain was to be removed from colored goods, it would 
be best to find the effect of the chemicals to be used on 
some small piece of the fabric. 

To test the color of a sample of gingham for fastness 
in washing, try a part of the sample in soap and hot 
water and see if the color "runs" or stains the water. 
Dry and iron the piece treated and compare with the 
portion of the original sample kept. A sample can be 



Expressing 
Molecules 



Ezperimentg 



Testing 
Colors 



129 



114 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

TABLE OF COMMON SUBSTANCES AND THEIR FORMULAS. 



SUBSTANCE 


FORMULA 


SUBSTANCE 


FORMULA 


Water 


H.,0 


Calcium Oxide 




Peroxide of Hydro- 




(Lime) 


CaO 


gen 


H2O3 


Lime Water . . . . 


CaOH 


Sulphuric Acid . . 


HaSO* 


Calcium Carbonate 


CaCOa 


Sulphur Dioxide . 


SO2 


Calcium Hypo- 




Hj'drochloric Acid 


HCl 


chlorite (Chloride 
of Lime) . . : . 


Ca(C10)j 


Vcetic Acid .... 


C2H4O3 


Sodium Thiosul- 




Tartaric Acid . . . 


C4H6O6 


phite ("Hypo") . 


NaaSaOs 


Cream of Tartar 




Cane Sugar .... 


C12H22O11 


(Acid potassium 
tartrate) . . . . 


KCiHbOs 


Milk Sugar .... 


C12H22O11+H2O 


Carbon Dioxide . . 


COa 


Grape Sugar , . . 


C«Hi20« 


Carbon Monoxide . 


CO 


Starch 


(C6Hio06)x 


Caustic Soda . . . 


NaOH 


Cellulose 


(CHioOJy 


Caustic Potash . . 


KOH 


Stearine (in fat) 


C3H8(02Cl8 H3 J )3 


Sodium Carbonate 




Palmitin (in fat) . 


C3H5(02Cl6H3,)3 


{Anhydrous) , . 


NaaCOa 


Soap - 


NaOaCiHHaji. 
NaOsCisHai. 


Sodium Carbonate 




( 


etc. 


{CrystaUiue) 
(Washing Soda) . 


Na.,C03+12HoO 


Albumen . . . . -^ 


{Not definitely 
known.) 


Sodium Bicarbon- 




Alcohol 


CsHsOH 


ate 


NaHCOa 


Wood Alcoliol . . 


CH3OH 


Ammonia {^as) . . 


NH, 


Glycerine 


C3H6(OH)3 


Ammonium llj-- 
drate (Ammonia 




G'soHne, N'phtha \ 


C«H,4. CtH.s. 


Water) 


NH.OH 


Benzine, etc , . ) 


CsHis, etc. 



130 



Testing by 



THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATOKY. 115 

tested for fastness to light by exposing to direct sun- 
light for a day or two, saving a portion of the cloth as 
before for comparison. If the dye will stand direct 
sunlight without appreciable change for this length of 
time, it will not give much trouble by fading. Wall 
paper may be tested for fading in a similar way. 

The industrial chemist always endeavors to test 
materials in a manner as nearly like the way they are comparison 
to be used as possible. For example, if he were testing 
two samples of flour to be used for making bread, he 
might make up two small loaves, using carefully 
weighed quantities of each sample of flour and other 
materials and baking the loaves at one time, compare 
the result. In such cases it is usual to have a "stand- 
ard" flour or other material to use for comparison. 

This method of testing by comparison could often 
be used by housekeepers provided reasonable care 
were taken as to weights and conditions. Working 
thus, flour, baking powder, soap, spices, flavoring ex- 
tracts, in fact almost all the raw materials of the kitchen 
and laundry could be tested. 

The chemicals for househald use are chiefly acids, 
alkalies, and solvents for grease. Acids and alkalies chenicais 
are opposed to each other in their properties and if too 
much of either has been used, it may be rendered in- 
nocent or neutralized by the other ; as when soda has 
turned black silk brown, acetic acid or vinegar will 
bring the color back. 



Hous hold 



131 



ii6 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, 



Acids for the 
Laboratory 



Care of 
Chemicals 



The acids which should be on the chemical shelf 
for the household are acetic, hydrochloric (muriatic), 
oxalic. Vinegar may be used in many cases instead of 
acetic acid, but vinegar contains coloring matter which 
stains delicate fabrics and it is better to use the puri- 
fied acid. Hydrochloric and oxalic acids are strong 
acids and will harm most household materials if al- 
lowed to act for loiig time. Acetic acid is a weak acid 
and as it is volatile, evaporates without becoming con- 
centrated as do the others. 

Some bright blue flannels and other fabrics, when 
washed with soap or ammonia become changed or 
faded in color. If acetic acid or vinegar be added to 
the last rinsing water, the original appearance may be 
restored. Not all shades of blue are made by the same 
compounds, hence not all faded blues can be thus re- 
stored. 

The use of these acids has been indicated in the 
previous pages, and there remains to be considered, 
only certain cautions. Hydrochloric acid is somewhat 
volatile. It will escape even around a glass stopper 
and will eat a cork stopper ; therefore, either the glass 
stopper should be tied in with an impervious cover — 
rubber or parchment — or a rubber stopper used, for the 
escaping fumes will rust metals and eat fabrics. 

Oxalic acid should be labeled POISON. 

The bleaching agents, "chloride of lime'' and Javelle 
water owe their beneficent effect to substances of an 
acid nature which are liberated from them. Thev 



132 



THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 117 

should all be used in solution only, and should be kept 
in bottles with rubber stoppers. 

Sulphurous acid gas, obtained by burning sulphur, 
will often remove spots which nothing else will touch. 
The amount given off from a burning sulphur match 
will often be sufficient to remove from the finger fruit 
stains or those made by black kid gloves. 

The alkalies which are indispensable are : Alkalies 

1st. Ammonia — better that of the druggist than the 
often impure and always weak * 'household ammonia." 
The strong ammonia is best diluted about one-half, 
since it is very volatile, and much escapes into the air. 

2nd. Potash and Caustic Soda, which are to be had at 
the grocers in small cans. The lye obtained from wood 
ashes owes its caustic and soap-making properties to 
potash. The caustics are corrosive in their action, and 
must be used with discretion. 

Crystallized sodium carbonate, the sal-soda of the 
grocer, is chemically speaking a salt and not an alkali, 
but it gives all the effect of one, since the carbonic acid 
is so weak that it readily gives place to other sub- 
stances. 

Sal-soda is a very cheap chemical, since It Is readily 
manufactured In large quantities, and forms the basis 
of most of the washing powders on the market. With 
grease, it forms a soap which Is dissolved and carried 
away. 

3rd. Borax Is a compound of sodium with boric acid, 
and acts as a mild alkali. It is the. safest of all the 



133 



ii8 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Solvttnta 



Oloset for 
Chemicals 



alkalies, and affects colored fabrics less than dots 
ammonia. 

Solvents for grease are alcohol, chloroform, ether, 
benzine, naphtha, gasolene — all volatile — kerosene and 
turpentine. Of these chloroform is the most costly, 
and is used chiefly for taking spots from delicate silks. 
Fabrics and colors not injured by water may be treated 
by alcohol or ether. Benzine, naphtha or gasolene are 
often sold, each under the name of the other. If care 
is taken to prevent the spreading of the ring, they can 
be safely used on any fabric. They do not mix with 
water, and are very inflammable. 

The less volatile solvents are kerosene and turpen- 
tine. Kerosene is a valuable agent in the household, 
and since some of the dealers have provided a deodor- 
ized quality, it should find an even wider use. The 
lighter variety is better than the 150-degree fire test, 
which is the safe oil for lamps. As has been indicated 
in the preceding pages, the housewife will find many 
uses for this common substance. 

On account of the purity and cheapness of kerosene, 
turpentine is less used than formerly, although it has 
its advantages. 

These household chemicals should have their own 
closet or chest, as separate from other bottles as is the 
medicine chest, and especially should they be separated 
from it. Many distressing accidents have occurred 
from swallowing ammonia by mistake. 

In addition to these substances, certain others may be 
kept on hand, if the housewife has sufficient chemical 



134 



THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 



119 



knowledge to enable her to detect adulteration in the 
groceries and other materials which she buys. 

A few of these simple tests are given with the 
chemicals needed. 

Directions for Using the Housekeeper's Laboratory. 
When directed to make a solution acid or alkaline, 
always test it by means of the litmus paper : 

Blue turned to red means acid. Red turned to blue 
means alkaline. 

Only by following the directions can the test be 
relied upon. Under other circumstances than those 
given, the results may mean something else. 

Use the acids in glass or china vessels only. Metals 
may be attacked. Do not touch brass with ammonia 
or marble with acid. Aluminum is quickly corroded by 
the alkalies. 

Heating or burning a substance often gives evidence 
of its character. Organic solids will char, leaving 
charcoal (carbon) when heated and will disappear 
completely when burned. Some salts melt ; others do 
not. 

All the carbonates that the housewife is likely to 
meet will give an effervescence of carbon dioxide with 
muriatic acid and most of them with acetic acid. 

Substances of an acid nature will effervesce with a 
solution of cooking soda. The test will be more deli- 
cate if the solutions are warm. 

To test for sulphuric acid or soluble sulphate in soda, 
cream of tartar, baking powder, vinegar, sugar or 



Tests 



Vessels 



Carbonates 



135 



120 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 



Lime Test 



Phosphates 



Chlorides 



Ammonia 



Alum 



syrup: Add muriatic acid to the solution (if the in- 
sokiblc part is sulphate of lime, it will dissolve in the 
acid on heating), then add barium chloride. A heavy 
white precipitate proves the presence of sulphuric acid, 
either free or combined. If the solution is not distinct- 
ly acid at first, it is not free. 

To test for lime in cream of tartar, baking powder, 
sugar or syrup : Make the solution alkaline with am- 
monia and ammonium oxalate. A fine white precipi- 
tate proves the presence of lime. Good cream of tartar 
will dissolve in boiling water, and will show only 
slight cloudiness when the test for lime is applied. 

To test for phosphates in cream of tartar or baking 
powder : Make acid by nitric acid, and add ammonium 
molybdate. A fine yellow precipitate or yellow color 
proves the presence of phosphates. 

To test for chlorides in soda, baking powder, sugar, 
syrup or water: Make the solution (a fresh portion) 
acid with nitric acid, and add silver nitrate. A white 
curdy precipitate or a cloudiness indicates chlorides. 

To test for ammonia in baking powder: Add a 
small lump of caustic soda to a strong water solution. 
Red litmus will turn blue in the steam, on heating. 

To test for alum in cream of tartar, baking powder 
or bread : Prepare a fresh decoction of logwood ; add 
a few drops of this to the solution or substance, ac^ 
render acid by means of acetic acid. A yellow color 
in the acid holution proves absence of alum. A bluish 



136 



TESTS. 121 

or purplish red, more or less decided, means more or 
less alum. 

To test for starch in any mixture which has been starch 
cooked, simply moisten with dilute tincture of iodine 
such as is kept by the druggists. An intense blue color 
will show the presence of even a minute quantity of 
starch. If the substance has not been heated, boil a 
portion and let cool and then test with a few drops of 
iodine solution. Heat destroys the blue color of iodine 
with starch and therefore the test must be made in cold 
solutions. 

If the label of a washing powder claims it to be washing 
something new, and requires that it be used without **^ ^^ 
soda, as soda injures clothes, it can be tested as fol- 
lows : Put half a teaspoonful of the powder into a 
tumbler, add a little water, then a few drops of muriatic 
acid. A brisk effervescence will prove it to be a car- 
bonate, and if the edge of the tumbler is held near the 
colorless flame of an alcohol lamp, the characteristic 
yellow color of sodium will appear and complete the 
proof. If the acid is added drop by drop, until no more 
effervescence occurs, and there remains a greasy scum 
on the surface of the liquid in the tumbler, the com- 
pound contains soap as well as sal-soda, for the acid 
unites with the alkali of the soap and sets free the 
grease. Acetic acid or a solution of oxalic acid may 
be used in place of the muriatic acid. 

If some very costly silver polishing powder is offered silver 
as superior to all other powders, a drop or two of 



137 



122 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

muriatic acid or of warm vinegar will decide whether 
or not it is chalk or whiting by the effervescence or 
liberation of the carbonic acid gas. 
Sample i^ making all the foregoing tests, it is well to ob- 

serve the effect of the chemicals used on the substance 
to be tested for, and so become familiar with the char- 
acteristic color or appearance of the test. For example, 
before testing a washing powder, add a little acid to a 
soap solution and observe the greasy film produced, 
and in testing for alum add a very little alum solution 
to some flour and test with the logwood solution, not- 
ing the color given. This procedure will lead to more 
reliable results. 

Caution f Use a new solution of a fresh portion of 
the first one for each new test and follow directions ex- 
actly. This is essential to remember. 



138 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

PART III. 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first 
sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one 
side of the sheet only. Do not copy anszvers from the lesson 
paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may know 
that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num- 
ber of times before attempting to answer the questions. 



1. What properties of "cream of tartar" make u 

suitable for baking powder? 

2. Explain how a candle is a gas factory. 

3. What conditions must be present for an explosion 

to take place? 

4. What is "cooking soda ?" How does it dififer from 

washing soda ? 

5. What is the principle of the Davy safety lamp? 

6. Describe the manufacture of coal gas. 

7. How Is water gas made? What objectionable 

features has it? 

S. What is "quick lime" and what are its uses ? 
9. How is electricity produced in a voltaic cell ? 
10. What does the chemical formula HoSO^ indicate ? 



139 



CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 

11. How is ''conservation" illustrated in the life and 

decay of a tree ? 

12. What can you say about the advisability of the 

housekeeper making experiments? 

13. How would you test for a carbonate? How foi 

an acid without using litmus paper? 

14. How are tests made by comparison? 

15. Are there any questions you would like to ask re- 

lating to "A Day's Chemistry"? 

16. Have you any personal experience, original 

method, or new fact to offer, relating to the sub- 
jects taken up in the lesson on the '^Chemistry 
of the Household" that would be of interest to 
your fellow students? 

Note — After compleliTig- the test, sig-n your full name. 



140 



SUPPLEMENT 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

By Margaret E. Dodd, S. B. 

In reading many hundreds of test papers written 
by our students I have found that additional com- 
ments suggest themselves frequently, and it may be 
of interest to bring them together here. 

IMPURITIES IN WATER 

By the term impurities, we mean substances out of 
place. Pure water is oxide of hydrogen, H^O. If 
water has salt dissolved in it, for instance, the salt is 
an impurity for the water, though we do not think 
of salt as being an impure substance in itself. The 
mineral impurities in drinking water are seldom a 
source of danger, although if the amount is large, 
such water may not "agree" with persons not used 
to it. Mineral impurities will usually make the water 
hard, and therefore troublesome for laundry work 
and to some extent in cooking. 

LAUNDRY WORK 

Satisfactory water for laundry work must not only 
be clear and soft but it must be free from iron, from 
the discoloration due to decaying vegetable matter, 
clayey soil, and so on. It should also be free from any 
odor when hot. Muddy Wc^ter may be cleared more 



141 



128 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

or less satisfactorily by filtering it through sand or 
"by precipitation." In the latter method, dissolve 
a scant tablespoonful each of alum and borax in a 
little hot water, and add this amount to each gallon 
of water used, stirring it in, and allowing it to settle. 
The alum and borax react to form a cloudy substance 
which settles to the bottom, carrying the mud with it. 
The clear water must then be carefully poured or 
dipped off from the sediment. A siphon is an excel- 
lent contrivance for such a use. If a piece of garden 
hose is used, tie on a piece of wood so that it extends 
one or two inches beyond the end, to keep it above 
the sediment. Weight it with a piece of lead. 

When water made hard by carbonate of lime is to 
be softened, addition of any of the alkalis will soften 
it, for this reason. These carbonates will not dis- 
solve in water unless it contains carbon dioxide gas 
in solution. The alkalis added, unite with the gas, 
and the lime is thereby made insoluble and separated 
from the water. We do not see it as a rule, for there 
is in reality, very little of it, and this little separates 
in very tiny particles. Water which is hard in the 
clothes boiler frequently causes trouble because of 
tiny bits of lime which separate from it and make 
spots upon the clothes. 

A spring situated in sandstone rock generally 
yields soft water because the sandstone is so slightly 
soluble, but one situated in limestone rock always 
gives hard water. Limestone is a very common rock, 



142 



LAUNDRY WORK 129 

so man}^ springs are of hard water. A shallow well 
is more apt to yield soft water than a deep one is, and 
a river has clearer and softer water near its source, 
where it runs over rocks, and through uncultivated 
land. 

Occasionally where free alkali is added to hard 
water, it unites with greasy or oily matter in the gar- 
ments being washed, and forms dark spots of soap 
insoluble in water. This is prevented to some extent 
by addition of a very little turpentine, and boiling 
such spotted garments in clean suds may dissolve out 
the stains if they have formed. This happens so sel- 
dom that the use of soda in laundry work (with cau- 
tion) for softening water is still to be recommended 

Washing powders are usually composed for the 
most part of washing soda, and as they cost more than 
soda, it is rather better to buy the latter. Moreover, 
the strength of the alkali may be more accurately 
judged. 

Water varies greatly in hardness, so it is difhcult to 
give exact rules for softening it, though I am often 
asked for them. In general, for moderately hard 
water use: 

I level tablespoonful of sal soda to i gallon 

water. 
X level tablespoonful of powdered lye to i 

gallon water. 
I level tablespoonful of borax to i gallon 
water. 



143 



130 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

Do not use ammonia with very hot water, for heat 
liberates the ammonia gas, which is thus lost. 

Some students have thus described the use of ashes 
from hard wood: 

Add a quart or more of water to a quart of ashes. 
Boil it a few minutes, adding more water if necessary. 
Then add sufficient water to make a gallon. Let it 
settle, then pour off the water and strain it. Put 
enough of it in the wash water to secure a good suds 
with soap. The water dissolves the potash (potas- 
sium carbonate) from the ashes. So this is an eco- 
nomical method of getting this alkali. 

I have had many interesting letters on the subject 
of laundry work. Some of the processes described 
may be new to many of our students. 

One writer describes a method of using paraffine 
in washing. She dissolves a bar of soap in boiling 
water and adds to it a piece of paraffine almost as 
large as a walnut. She uses this in making a suds 
with boiling water in which the clothes are thoroughly 
boiled for twenty minutes or more, punching them 
ocassionally. They must be rinsed in several hot 
waters to ensure the removal of the paraffine, but 
she claims the clothes will be beautifully white. 

A number have advocated the use of kerosene in 
laundry work, especially with very much soiled articles. 
Both this and parr-ffins certaimy act upon the oily 
film which entangles che dirt and thus make the wash- 
ing easier. Tlr^i ol:jection to their use is that more 



144 



\ 



BLUING 131 

soap and more hot water and therefore more 
fuel must be used. Two tablespoonfuls of kerosene 
in a boiler of soapy water is about the right quantity. 
In this connection it should be said that when clothes 
are taken from the boiler, they should be put into 
tepid water, and pushed well into it, for lying in the 
air seems to set the dirt, probably because the fibres 
contract as they cool, so that foreign particles are 
enclosed in the cloth and cannot fall out into the rinse 
water. 

Kerosene is excellent to use in washing dish towels. 
Make a strong soap suds, putting in a tablespoonful 
of oil to a gallon of water. Soap the towels well, and 
boil them in this suds for half an hour or so. Then 
wash, rinse and dry them, in the fresh air. Kerosene 
is somewhat volatile, and its odor will escape in time. 
When kerosene has been used, the wringer, tubs, etc.-, 
will need very careful cleaning to remove any film cf 
oil before it has time to catch dust. 

BLUING 

There are three kinds of bluing now on the market. 
The action and disadvantages of Prussian Blue have 
been described. It gives a better color, however, 
than either of the other two . A second kind is Ultra- 
marine blue. This, also, is an iron compound, but 
it does not decompose with alkali. It is what we 
often buy as the "ball bluing," and is insoluble in 
water. Water, however, causes it to break up into very 



145 



132 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

minute particlt's which spread through the Hquid and 
give it a bhie color. The water must be kept stirred, 
and one must be careful in using it that the clothes 
do not get streaked. The balls of bluing should be 
tied up in a cloth and washed from this into the water. 
It is well to prepare it in a separate dish and then add 
it to the water. Indigo blue is easier to use, but does 
not give so good a color. Preparations of indigo 
for laundry work may still be obtained. 

Here is a method of cleansing knitted Avorsted goods 
which was strongly recommended. AYash the gar- 
ment in gasoline, and allow it to dry. Then shake it 
well in a tight box with flour or fuller's earth, allow- 
ing it to remain there an hour or more. The powder 
will absorb any greasy or oily substance, and later 
may be shaken out. In using gasoline for cleaning 
in this way, have a generous amount, and allow for 
rinsing the articles well. The gasoline may be used 
more than once, for the dirt which it contains will 
settle to the bottom of the vessel in which it stands 
and the clear liquid may be poured off. Use it out 
of doors, or in a strong outward draft, that the in- 
flammable vapors it produces may blow harmlessly 
away. 

To many people, the word "chemical" always 
means an acid. Now, acids and alkalis dift'er so much 
in their properties, that it ic wise to be able to distin- 
guish between them. Injuries due to the use of one 
may frequently be remedied by prompt use of the 



146 



SOAP MAKING 133 

other. Alkalis are especially useful in laundry work 
because of their action upon grease of most kinds. 
Some of the salts formed with the alkali metals are 
alkaline in reaction. Among these are washing and 
cooking soda. 

HOME SOAP MAKING 

All fats and oils are compounds of certain fatty 
acids combined with glycerine. Glycerine is easily 
separated from this combination by strong alkalis, 
and thus soaps are made. The glycerine is a by-pro- 
duct in many soap factories, but it is not evident in 
home-made soap, being thrown away with any waste 
water, or, perhaps, left in the soft soap. The various 
fats are composed of different kinds of fatty acids, so 
we have varieties of soap made from them. 

Rosin acts like fatty acids, for it is able to combine 
with alkali to make rosin soap. This is good for 
rough work, but it is apt to separate in hot water, 
setting free the rosin acids, which may settle upon the 
fabric being washed, giving it the odor of rosin or 
causing it to become yellow. It is very objectionable 
when the clothes come to be ironed. This rosin also 
makes fabrics likely to take up dust. If the clothes 
are well rinsed, the amount of rosin soap in ordinary 
yellow soap gives no trouble. 

I have often been asked for a recipe for home-made 
soap, and, too, I have had many students write me of 
their success in this process. Many housekeepers 



147 



134 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

keep and clarify the fats from food. Soap may 
easily be made from this, as follows: 

Take a jiound can of lye (Babbitt's potash is good) 
and dissolve it in three pints of cold water. It will 
become quite hot as it dissolves, and care must be 
taken in adding the lye to the water, as it is apt to 
spatter, and is likely to irritate the hands. 

Have ready five pounds of clean fat, which has been 
melted and strained through cheese-cloth to remove 
all specks of brown. When the lye is cool, pour it 
slowly on the grease, stirring it with a stick until the 
two mix, and the liquid becomes about as thick as 
honev. Too long stirring may cause the ingredients 
to separate. 

Mould the soap in agate or wooden trays. If a 
wooden box is used, it should be lined with several 
thicknesses of wrapping paper. The layer next the 
soap should be oiled. The soap should harden in a 
moderately warm place, and then may be cut into 
cakes. This is the so-called "cold process" soap. It 
will not be suitable for fine work but improves with age. 

Several students have described to me how 
they remembered seeing soap made at home from 
alkali obtained by leaching wood ashes. The ashes 
were put into a large box pierced with holes, the 
box placed over the soap kettle, and hot water was 
poured upon the top. This alkali would make soft 
soap, which would be stored in barrels. If hard soap 
were desired, salt was added to some of the soft soap. 



148 



DISH WASHING 



J35 



A reaction takes place by which some of the sodium 
in the salt is combined with the fatty acids, sufficient 
hard soap being formed to harden the mass. Nowa- 
days, even when we buy "potash" we are quite sure 
to find that we can make hard soap, for it almost 
always is chiefly soda (caustic soap). 

Washing soda has a great many uses, and I am 
frequently reminded of new ones by our students. 
I am told how excellent it is to put a little in water 
and boil this in the cooking dishes on which food has 
hardened or burned. Another describes how she 
cleans silver by boiling it with a little soda, then rins- 
ing it in very hot water and drying quickly and 
thoroughly. The wife of a dairy farmer assures me 
that she could never get her creamery cans suitably 
clean without plenty of sal soda, which quickly 
removes the butter fat. When we use it in laundry 
work, however, we must remember that, like other 
solids, when it dissolves, a saturated solution forms 
around each piece, and this strong solution may in- 
jure anything on which the pieces rest. Therefore 
the crystals should always be dissolved, and the solu- 
tion diluted as much as may seem necessary. 

DISH WASHING 

The washing of dishes takes so much time in every, 
house that it is evidently a subject calling for close 
attention. Nothing is more desirable than that this 
work be done thoroughly and well; still, it is doubtless 



149 



136 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

possible to plan for it in such a way that time may 
be saved for other matters. 

In the first place, systematic work is sure to go 
more rapidly than haphazard fashions. The dishes 
should be prepared for washing by scraping them as 
clean as possible, and some housekeepers advocate 
rinsing off many of them under the hot or cold 
water faucets before putting them in the dish- 
pan. Hard water is very unsatisfactory for dish 
washing, and the use of soda or borax is a great help 
when soft water is not available. Borax is not so 
hard on the hands as soda. Dishes which have 
contained milk or eggs are better rinsed well in cool 
water, for heat hardens the albumins so that they are 
removed with difficulty. 

Plenty of hot, soapy water is necessary to do this 
work easily, and a second dishpan of clear, hot water 
in which to rinse the dishes is a great help. Use 
very little soap on gilt china, however. 

There seems to be a great variety of opinion on 
the subject of washing glass. Many housekeepers 
have expressed a preference for washing it in cold 
water rather than in hot. Where the glass is not 
at all greasy, this is very well. Ammonia or soda in 
the water helps to clean the glass and makes it 
lustrous. Glass washed in cold water should be 
allowed to drain almost dry before it is polished. 

One housekeeper has described to me a wire basket 
which she has had made to hold dishes when they 



150 



DISH WASHING 137 

drain, and which is made to fit into her dishpan. 
Fitting the dishes into this, she is able to immerse 
them in hot rinsing water, and then Hft them out 
to dry. She finds the plan an excellent one. 

Another student writes that she has found sifted 
coal ashes a most useful article to use in cleaning 
knives. Another prefers sifted wood ashes. These 
most be very carefully sifted, so that no hard bits be 
left in, which might scratch the articles polished. 

The kitchen dishes are usually the most difficult 
to wash, and one student describes a home-made 
"scrubber" which she declares is very useful. "Take 
a broom apart, a good one, by removing the wire and 
letting the straw loose," she says. "The upper part 
of the straw is then put into boiling water and left 
long enough to soften it. Then the straws are tied 
together in bundles about two inches across, using a 
strong twine. The twine is pulled tight, and sinks 
into th^ softened straw, and when dry, it does not 
slip. A loop is left for hanging the bundle, and the 
straw is left its whole length. These are so long and 
slender they will reach into anything. They are a 
great saving on the hands, and allow the use of much 
hotter water." 

Many of our students recommend the use of soft 
paper in cleaning greasy dishes, kettles, and pans, 
The papers may be burned, thus disposing of much 
grease which would otherwise find its way irito the 
kitchen sink drain. 



151 



138 - CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 



LATENT HEAT 



The subject of latent heat, described on page 12, 
has proved very puzzling to many. It is certainly 
a strange idea at first, that heat does anything more 
than make things warm. Still, a moment's considera- 
tion recalls to mind that heat can do many other 
things. Heat causes chemical change, for substances 
are often changed by strong heat. Heat causes most 
substances to expand. If a sealed can of any sub- 
stance is strongly heated, it will probably explode. 
Heat causes liquids to evaporate, and solids to melt. 

If a liquid is placed in an open dish on a source 
of heat, its temperature will rise until it begins to 
boil. After this, it gets no hotter, no matter how 
much heat is applied, unless the liquid is becoming 
more dense as it boils, as would be the case with a 
syrup, for example. The heat it receives is all 
expended in changing the liquid into vapor, or, as we 
say, changing the "state of matter." The particles 
(molecules) are driven farther apart by the heat. A 
cubic inch of water makes a cubic foot of steam. 
The amount of heat necessary to produce the change 
from liquid to gas varies with different substances. 
Water requires a very large amount. Four times as 
much heat is required to change an ounce of water into 
steam as to vaporize the same amount of alcohol. 
If heat is applied rapidly, the liquid will boil rapidly, 
but it does not affect the temperature. The heat 



152 



LATENT HEAT 139 

used in this way is not lost, but is stored up in the 
vapor as latent heat. The steam is no hotter than 
the boiling water, and heat added keeps it from 
becoming liquid. When vapor condenses and changes 
back to liquid, the latent heat is given out, and 
warms surrounding things. In fact, the vapor can- 
not condense unless the latent heat it contains is 
removed, except under pressure. This latent heat 
makes steam an excellent medium for heating build- 
ings, as it contains so much heat and passes through 
pipes rapidly. Not only is the steam itself hot, but 
it carries a vast amount of heat stored up, to be 
liberated in the cooler regions. 

Latent heat is stored up in water, also, and is liber- 
ated when the water becomes ice. This is seldom 
apparent, for far less heat is thus stored in water 
than in steam, and, too, the temperature of freezing 
water is low. The heat given out when water freezes 
is at 32° F, while that given out when steam condenses 
is at 212° F. Still, a cellar may be several degrees 
warmer if it contains a tank of water which freezes 
than if the water were not there. The temperature 
may keep about 32° F. where otherwise it might 
go to 26° or less. 

A room is cooled in warm weather by sprinkling 
water upon the hoor. The evaporation of the water 
takes much heat from the air, storing it in the 



153 



140 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

vapor produced. Britannia and some other metals 
of which pitchers, teapots, etc., are made will melt 
if placed on a hot stove. If, however, they contain 
water, this is not likely to occur, for the water can- 
not be heated above its boiling point, and this is far 
below the melting point of the metal, and keeps the 
temperature of the metal low enough for safety. 
This reminds me of an experiment I once saw where 
candy was actually made in a pasteboard box. The 
syrup never became hot enough to scorch the paper, 
and thus the paper itself was kept fairly cool. 

USE OF THE THERMOMETER 

A kitchen thermometer may be bought of any 
dealer in the better class of kitchen goods. The 
floating dairy thermometers are convenient. One 
to register 212° F, may be obtained from the School 
for 50 cents. A thermometer made to register oven 
temperatures is more expensive, one registering to 
600° F. costing $1.50. Various uses of the ther- 
mometer are described in Principles of Cookery and 
Home Care of the Sick, but there are many times in 
the kitchen when it is of assistance, as in getting the 
right density for syrups in candy making, for syrups 
in preserving, and the right temperatures for raising 
bread, making soups, custards, etc. 

Some uses of the thermometer in the kitchen are 
the following, described in Miss Parloa's "Home 
Economics"; 



154 



BREAD MAKING 14* 

Olive oil is liquid above 75°. If above this tem- 
perature it shows solid specks, making it look cloudy, 
you may be sure it is adulterated with some fat having 
a higher melting point. 

Butter should melt at 94°. If it does not, you may 
know it is adulterated with suet or some other fat 
having a higher melting point. 

BREAD MAKING 

The composition and manufacture of bread are 
subjects which have been given much study. The 
carbon dioxide which serves to lighten the dough 
raised with yeast is produced at the expense of 
some of the starch of the flour. This starch is 
completely driven from the loaf as carbon dioxide 
gas and alcohol during the baking. *The loss is esti- 
mated at about 2 per cent. Attempts have been 
made in large bakeries to save the alcohol, but no 
economical method has b^en devised. About fifty 
years ago, German chemists in studying the question 
estimated that the food materials lost in twenty- 
four hours, when bread is raised with yeast, was 
sufficient to supply bread to 400,000 people! These 
figures were certainly startling to the thrifty Germans, 
and the possibility of producing the carbon dioxide 
gas in some less extravagant manner was studied 
with considerable care in German laboratories, and 
also at Harvard University in America. Baking 



155 



142 CIJEMISTRY OF THE HOVSEJJOLIJ 

powders arc llic result of lliese investij^ations 
Cilulen is not ehangccl chemically by the action of the 
yeast or of the carbon dioxide, but it is physically 
changed — the escape of the ^ascs strctcdiint^ it out 
into fibres. Gluten, like other proteids, hardens when 
heated. Bakinjj; thus makes the porous condition of 
the doui^h pcrmai cut. 

MAKING BAKING POWDER 

Several sliidents have sent mc rcci])es they like 
to use for making baking ])owder. The claim is 
made that these cost rather less than the kinds that 
can be bought, and also that they are much more 
elTective. Here is one: 

yi lb. cream of tartar. 

]4^ lb. cooking' soda (blc^arbonate of soda). 

J s lb. corn starch. 

The best quality of each must be bought. Sift 
them together at least a dozen times, the last time 
into baking powder boxes. Be c\ircful to seal up all 
crac-ks bv pasting over them |)ap(M- strips. About one 
half as nuich of this is rccpiired as for the average 
powder sold. 

These proportions would probably give a slight 
excess of acid. We might combine 2^:^ parts of the 
acid salt with one part of soda if our salts are chemi- 
cally pure. The corn starch is added to keep the soda 
and acid salt from forming (|uite such an intimate 



156 



DISTILLA TION 143 

mixture. The two salts in contact would very 
slowly combine, and the baking i)owder thus lose its 
strength. 

DISTILLATION 

A few nKjre words might be said on the subject of 
distillation. I am sometimes asked to explain more 
fully the term "destructive distillation." When a 
complex substance like wood or coal is heated some 
of its ingredients are made volatile at the high tem- 
jjcrature, and so escape as gases. The wood itself 
is broken up into simpler substances. It is plain 
that in this process the original .substance is lost as 
such, new substances taking its place, and we there- 
fore speak of the process as destructive distillation. 

When water containing various salts or gases in 
solution is heated, the gases will V)e given off as the 
temperature rises. At the boiling point, the water 
itself will begin to pass off as vapor. The salts will 
not vaporize unless much more strongly heated. If 
the steam be collected and cooled, it will condense to 
form pure water. This in an illustration of simple 
distillation. If a mixture of alcohol and water be 
heated some of the alcohol will vaporize before the 
water. It may in this way be separated from the 
water, and this process is called fractional distilla- 
tion. This is the principle employed in the manu- 
facture of whiskey, etc. 



157 



144 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

COMPOSITION OF GAS 

The complex nature of coal gas is shown by the 
following table, which represents an average sample: 

Hydro-carbon vapors 0.6 

Heavy hydro-carbons 4.4 

Carbon dioxide 3.4 

Carbon monoxide 10. o 

Methane (CH4) 30.6 

Oxygen , 0.3 

Hydrogen 45-9 

Nitrogen 4.8 

100% 

Of these, the hydro-carbons, carbon monoxide, CH4 
and hydrogen are combustible. 

Coals always contain more or less sulphur, v hich is 
a great trouble to the gas manufacturer. It fre- 
quently happens that some of it gets into the gas. 
If such, gas escapes, the sulphur compounds unite 
with the silverware, giving is a coating of dark 
sulphide of silver. If silver tarnishes quickly, it is 
an indication of a leak of gas or sewer gas. It is 
estimated that a ton of coal should yield 10,000 feet 
of gas, 1,400 lbs. of coke (35 bushels), 12 gallons 
of tar, 4 lbs. of ammonia. 

More than six hundred products are obtained from 
the coal tar. The nature and uses of these products 
would form an interesting topic for futher study. 



158 



COMPOSITION OF GAS 145 

The composition of water gas is somewhat as follows : 

Hydro-carbon vapors 1.2 

Heavy hydro-carbons 12.0 

Carbon dioxide 3.0 

Carbon monoxide 28.0 

Oxygen 0.4 

Hydrogen 3i-4 

CH4 (Methane) 20.8 

Nitrogen 3.2 

100% 

Notice that this gas contains less methane and 
hydrogen (which are combustible), and their place 
is taken by carbon monoxide, which, although com- 
bustible, is very poisonous. There is some carbon 
monoxide in ordinary illuminating gas but not nearly 
so much. The water gas has a strong odor from the 
hydro-carbons (crude gasoline) added to make it 
luminous, but comparatively little of it in the air is 
likely to produce very injurious effects upon living 
things, plants and animals alike. It is the most poison- 
ous substance that comes into the house. It is estimat- 
ed that about fourteen per cent of the gas manu- 
factured escapes into the earth through leaky gas 
mains. In passing through the soil the odorous part 
of water gas may be strained out, so that it becomes 
odorless. Whole families have been poisoned from 
deodorized water gas leaking into the house by way of 



159 



146 CIJEAIISJ/kV of I HE J/Ot'SFJ/OLD 

the riMlar. This (Muphasizcs the iniportiince of having 
a porlectly li^lit rellar, with ixMucnted walls and 
lloor, and the importance oi" venlilatini^ (he c"ellar, lor 
tlu^ cellar air finds its way to the rooms above. 
Natural i;as contains pi^act icalh' no caiboii monoxide. 

SPONTANKOUS COMIiUSTION 

We otten hear ol lii-es apparently "starting them- 
selves." Such cases arc due lo accumulation ol heat 
produced 1)\' slow o.xidation. II a pile ol oil)' raj^s, 
cotton waste, eU'.,l>(.* allowed to stand lor a time, tin* 
oily matter will be};in to combine slowly with oxygen. 
This ma\' ociur in the inner part of the heap, and 
the outer laNcMs retain llu^ IumI untd, piMdiaps, the 
kindlinv; point ol somi> ol t \\c inllanunablc oils is reach- 
cil.when the wlioU^ mass will burst into tlame. This is 
nuich morc^ bkel\' to ha]>piMi with linseed oil and 
certain other vegetable "drying oils, " as they imite 
readilv with oxygen, anil so become hard and varnish- 
like. The mineral oils (paralhne oil) do not combine 
with oxNgen at ordinar\' temptM-atures, and i)robabl\- 
will not cause spontancHUis combustion. Still, all 
oily cloths should be burneil or dispovsed of in some 
safe fashicni. 

CONSliRVATION OK ENERGY 

An interesting and important principle, ex- 
plaineil on i>age 23 of Part 1, and again on i>age 110 
of Tart 111, is C'onsiMvatism. Tins principle has been 
established b\' countless t>\pernniMits, but it is not 



100 



CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 147 

one that the housekeeper can well investigate. It 
is, however, one she must continually bear in mind. 
Matter and energy can never ho^ created or destroyed; 
Ijotli may be transformed, and may therefore appear 
in many different ways. The voltaic cell is a simj)le 
device for transforming chemical energy into elec- 
trical force. The chemical affinity of two substances 
causes them to unite under the right conditions. 
This union results in the liberation of energy, which 
may appear as heat, light, or electricity. When 
coal and oxygen unite, -we get both heat and light 
as a result. Chemical union usually produces heat. 

The energy of our bodies we get solely from the 
food we absorb. We should eat such foods as best 
give us the needed energy, and we should learn to 
expend this energy wisely, as we have but a limited 
amount of it. One student wisely comments upon 
this, as follows: 

"In the economic plan of housekeeping, it would 
be well if each one would endeavor to realize that 
she is a part of the machinery of the household, and 
that to be continually on the move is as disastrous 
to the equilibrium of the home as it is to rust, as it 
were, for want of use. A given amount of rest each 
day is a true part of economy. Then, too, in the 
daily regime, there are ways and ways of doing things. 
Always choose the easiest, if it conflicts not with the 
quality of the work done. For example, do not 
stand while paring potatoes, apples, etc. It is just 



161 



MS CNEMISrh'V ()F Till-: HOl'Sl-.IIOLn 

as easy to ilo this work sitlinj]:, ^inil you can then get 
some rest at the sa..io (nnc. Don't worry— to worry 
is a very extra vaoanl tliino. for it uses up vakuible 
force, and does no good at all " 



162 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Richards and Elliott, 
[$i.oo, postage 8c.) 
Chemistry of Daily Life, Lassar-Cohn. ($r.5o, postage 

IOC.) 

Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, vSnydcr. ($1.25, 

postage IOC.) 

Chemistry of Cooking, Williams. ($1.50, postage 12c.) 
Chemistry of Common Life, Johnston. ($2.00, postage 

i6c.) 
Chemistry of Life and Health. C. W. Kimmins. ($1.00, 

postage IOC.) 

First Lessons in Food and Diet, Ellen H. Richards. (30c., 

postage 4c.) 

Laboratory Notes in Household Chemistry, H. T. Vulte 

and G. A. Goodell. 

Laundry Work, Juniata L. vSheppard. (50c., postage 6c.) 
Story of a Lump of Coal, Martin. (35c., postage 4c.) 
Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Bailey. ($1.40, postage 

I2C.) 

Elements of Chemistry, R. P. Williams. ($1.10, postage 

IOC.) 

An Introduction to General Chemistry, Smith. ($1.25, 
postage I2C.) 

Essentials of Chemical Physiology, Halliburton. ($1.50, 
postage 14c.) 

First Course in Physics, Millikan and Gale. ($1.25, post- 
age 14c.) 

Introduction to Organic Chemistry, Ira Remsen. ($1.20, 
postage I2C.) 

Organic Industrial Chemistry, S. P. Sadtler. ($5.00 
postage 28c.) 



163 



150 C//£J//STA'\' i^r THE HOUSEHOLD 

U. S. GOVERNMENT BULLETINS 

Tiuiustrial Aloohol: Sources and Maiuilacturo. Fanners' 
Bulletin Xo. jo8 (freeV 

Industrial Alcohol: Uses an*.! Statistics. I'^anuers' Bulletin 
Xo. J69 (free). 

Modern Conveniences for the Fvinn Home. Fanners' l>ul- 
letin Xo. :»7o (tVeeV 

Composition of American Food Material. HuUclin Xo. jS. 
OtVice of Experiment Station. (Price 5c. ") 

vSome Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods 
ior their Detection. Bulletin Xo. 100, Bureau of Chemistry. 
(Price 10c.) 

Arsenic in Wall Paper and l'\ibrii's Bulletin Xo. S6, 
Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5c ") 

Chemical Composition of Apples and Cider, l^ullctin Xo. 
SS, Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5c. ) 

A^"'^'. — For the /Vtv bulletins, send to the Department 01 
Agriculture, Washnigton, D. C; to obtain the/or .s\j/c bulletins. 
send coin ormoney order to the Sup m intendent of Documei^.'s 
Washington, D. C. 



164 



SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS 

STUDY ON 

CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

By Maurice L^Bosquet, S. B, 
Director, American School of Home Economics 

As in the study of chemistry and physics so much emphasis 
is placed on laboratory work, the following supplementary 
program is made up chiefly of simple experiments, such as 
may be performed with little or no apparatus. When heat 
is required, it ma}'' be supplied by a small gas stove, a one 
burner oil stove, or an alcohol lamp. The lamp of a chafin g 
dish might be useu. A thermometer will be loaned by tne 
School for 6 cents postage, or one may be purchased for 
50 cents. 

MEETING I 

(Study pages 1-29) 
Water 

To show that ordinary water has gases dissolved in it. 
See experiment on page 2. The gas dissolved in water is 
not exactly of the same composition as air. It usually con- 
tains more oxygen and more carbon dioxide than ordinary 
atmospheric air, varying somewhat with the sources of the 
water. This dissolved gas enables fish and other marine 
animals to live. A fish cannot live in water that has lost its 
dissolved air by being boiled. It is drowned just as human 
beings are, because of lack of oxygen. 

Water of Crystallization 

Make crystals as described on page 5. A certain definite 
amount of water is present in the crystals which varies witn 
each substance. Clear crystals are pure or nearly so. The 
"mother liquor" remaining after the crystals are formed 

151 



165 



152 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

contains most of the impurities; thus crystallization is a 
method of purification. 

The water in the crystals of washing soda may be shown 
by heating some in a tin dish. The crystals will melt and 
on continued heating, steam will be given off. Not all crys- 
tals contain water of crystallization, — for example, common 
salt, cane sugar. 

Boiling Point 

It is almost impossible to convince any "domestic" that 
water boiling furiously is no hotter than when it is just barely 
boiling. It is instructive to prove this with a thermometer. 
Also observe that the "simmering" temperature is very 
nearly the same as the water when boiling, so that cooking 
may be done nearly as rapidly by simmering and with jar 
less fuel. 

Latent Heat 

This is a somewhat perplexing phenomenon. We all recog- 
nize that steam is hot, but that it contains a much greater 
supply of heat than hot water is not so easy to realize. The 
following may make this a little clearer: In a small sauce 
pan or dish put about two tablespoonfuls of water. Heat it 
to the boiling point and then continue the boiling until it 
has all boiled away. Note (i) how long it takes to raise the 
water to the boiling point, and (2) how much time is required 
to convert it all into steam. 

To start the boiling, the water is raised from about 6o°F. 
to 212° F., or through 152°. In converting the water into 
steam, there is no rise in temperature, but the heat has 
to be applied for a much longer period. On page 12 is the 
statement that "966 times as much heat is required to change 
a given quantity of water into steam as to raise it one degree 
F. " but the water in this experiment was raised 150°. As 
966 divided by 152 equals 6 (plus), we might expect that it 
would take six times as long to boil the water away as to 



166 



PROGRAM 153 

raise it to the boiling point. Of course no exact results can 
be expected in this experiment, as not all the heat ap- 
plied is absorbed by the water and used in boiling it, Ijut the 
experiment will show that the steam must contain a great 
deal of heat. 

A similar experiment will show the latent heat contained 
in water in reference to ice. If a teaspoonful of ice cold 
water and an amount of snow or ice which when melted 
would make a teaspoonful, each be added to a glass of water 
of the same temperature, it will be found that the pulverized 
ice or snow lowers the temperature much more than the tea- 
spoonful of ice-cold water. That is to say, a great deal more 
heat would have to be added to the "ice and water mixture, " 
to bring it back to the original temperature, than to the "ice 
cold water and water mixture. " 

Oxygen in the Air 

To show that the atmosphere contains a gas which is used 
up in combustion, attach a candle an inch and a half long to 
the bottom of a saucer with some of the melted wax. Pour 
about one-fourth of a glass of water into the dish, light the 
candle and invert the glass (one with straight sides) over 
the lighted candle. The flame will grow dim and soon be 
extinguished and the water will rise about one-fifth way up 
the glass. This shows a number of things. In burning, 
the carbon of the hydrocarbons of which the candle is made 
unites with the oxygen, making the gas carbon dioxide. 
This takes up the same volume as the oxygen out of which 
it was formed, but the water quickly dissolves the carbon 
dioxide and the pressure of the atmosphere on the water 
outside the glass forces it up into the partial vacuum formed. 

The nitrogen of the air remains, but this will not "support 
combustion," and so the candle is extinguished. 

Manufacturing Water 

That the burning of a candle produce-^ water as well as 



167 



154 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

carbon dioxide may be shown by placing the flame against 
a window pane. A film of moisture may be seen, also, when 
a lamp having a cold chimney is first lighted. The burning 
of a match will show water when it is placed against a cold 
surface, but this experiment is not so conclusive, for the 
wood may contain moisture. The candle contains no moist- 
ure, so the water must have been manufactured by the 
burning. 

Atmospheric Pressure 

We have had one example of the result of atmospheric 
pressure in the candle experiment. The working of a siphon 
i-s an interesting example. Take a small rubber tube, fill it 
with water, pinch both ends,* put one end in a glass of water, 
and lower the other end into an empty glass at a foot lower 
level; release the pressure of the fingers, and the water will 
run from the tube, apparently going "up hill" over the edge 
of the glass. The explanation may be found in any text 
book on physics. This is a good way to empty wash tubs, 
etc., using a piece of rubber hose. 

Carbon Dioxide 

Light a splinter of wood and let it burn in a wide-mouthed 
bottle until it is extinguished. Add a tablespoonful of clear 
lime water (obtained at any drug store, or add a small lump 
of lime to warm water in a fruit jar, stir well, cover and let 
settle over night), close the bottle and shake the lime water 
around. It will grow milky from the formation of carbonate 
of lime (calcium), with which we are more familiar in the 
forms of chalk, marble, and clam shells. 

Again with any sort of a tube (a straw), blow into a little 
clear lime water. It will grow milky, showing that the 
breath contains carbon dioxide. If you will continue to 
blow into the lime water for a long time, the milkiness 
will be seen to disappear. This is because the carbonate of 
lime is dissolved by the excess of carbon dioxide in the water. 



168 



PROGRAM 155 

after the lime water (hydrate of Hrae) is all changed into 
carbonate of lime. This point comes up in connection with 
hard water and laundry work. 

Flash Point of Kerosene 

The flash point of a sample of kerosene may be determined 
approximately by placing about two teaspoonfuls in a cup, 
then adding hot water to a bowl of water in which the cup 
containing the oil is placed. Stir the kerosene with a ther- 
mometer, and apply a lighted taper to the surface of the oil 
from time to time as the temperature of the oil rises. A 
quick flash over the surface of the kerosene will show the 
flash point. Read the temperature indicated by the ther- 
mometer. 

References: Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Chapter 
I, Atmosphere, Combustion. ($1.50, postage 

I2C.)~ 

Story of a Lump of Coal, by Martin. (35c., 

postage 6c.) 
Air and Water as Food, in Plain Words about 

Food, by Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 

IOC.) 

Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, by Bailey, 
Chapter on The Atmosphere, Fuels. ($1.40 
postage I2C.) 

Topics: The Formation of Coal — See any good encyclo- 

pedia and geologies. 
Fire Worship — See "Popular Science Monthly," 
Volume X, page 17, also "Public Opinion/* 
Volume XIV, page 251. 



169 



150 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

MEETING II 

(Study pages 29-55) 

If the Food Course is being taken, some of the experiments 
here suggested might better be postponed until the lessons 
on Principles of Cookery or Food and Dietetics. 

Starch 

The blue color produced by a tincture of iodine (obtained 
at the drug store) on the faintest trace of starch is a very 
delicate test for starch. Cooked starch shows the test much 
better than uncooked. Note that the blue color is destroyed 
by heat, but appears again when the test is cool. Test 
various foods — grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts for 
starch. 

The conversion of starch into dextrin may be shown by 
heating a little flour or corn starch in a hot oven for half an 
hour or so, or until it becomes a deep yellow color. Dis- 
solve in a little cold water, filter out the unchanged starch 
by pouring through absorbent cotton in a funnel; test the 
filtered liquid to sec if there is still any unchanged starch in it. 
Add double the quantity of alcohol to a part of the liquid. 
The dextrin will be precipitated, i. e., thrown out of solution 
and will settle as a fine powder. because dextrin is not soluble 
in alcohol. The water solution should be concentrated by 
boiling if much is used. 

That the starch is changed by heating with butter or other 
fat may be shown by adding two teaspoonfuls of flour to 
one teaspoonful of very hot butter, stirring for some time. 
Remove a drop on a piece of white paper and test it with 
tincture of iodine. 

Make starch paste by mixing a quarter of a teaspoonful of 
laundry or corn starch with a spoonful of water and adding 
it to a cup of boiling water and boil. To about half a glass 
of this when it has cooled to body temperature (100° F) add 
a half teaspoonful of saliva. Keep the mixture warm (not 



170 



PROGRAM 157 

hot) for some time by placing it in warm water. From 
time to time test small portions with iodine solution as it 
grows clearer. Add saliva to a portion of hot starch; to a 
cold portion testing as before. 

Gluten 

May be the gluten separates from flour as described on 
page 49, or better as described in "Food and Dietetics" page 
41. Bake part of it in an oven. 

Experiments with other proteids also described on pages 
41 and 43 of "Food and Dietetics." 

Experiments with yeast described on page 45 of "House- 
hold Bacteriology, " Part I. 

"Digestion is Synonymous with Solution" 

This statement is made on page 35. To show the reiation 
of the length of time required to make a solution, take two 
equal portions of any crystals, such as washing soda or alum, 
and pulverize one portion. Stir each in a glass of water and 
observe the tima for each in dissolving. Note that the time 
required for complete solution is determined by the largest 
crystal. 

This experiment shows how important a part of digestion 
chewing is and that the teeth are primarily digestive organs. 

Cooking Meat 

See experiment on pages 50 and 51. 

Mineral Matter — Gelatin 
See experiments on page 53. 

References: Chemistry of Cookery, by Mattieu Williams 

Pages iy-31. Albumen. ($1.50, postage i6c.) 

Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Pages 

56-66. Digestion of Food. ($1.50, postage loc.) 

(Select and send to the School a composite set of answers 

to Test Questions on Part I, and report on eupplemental 

work and experiments.) 



171 



158 CJJEMISTRY O/'' V'/ZA" J/OUSI'ffOLlJ 

MEETING III 

(SUuly i)aK<-'S 55-^^5) 

Cleaning: Acids, Alkalies, and Salts 

Strips (jf lit.iiiiis |).i|)(;r may Ik; ol>l,,'iiiic(l at, ;i. drug store or 
will bo sent from Uio Schofjl on r(M|iu;sl. Moisten tlic V)]ue 
paper in vinegar, lemon jiiiec;, tomat(j, solutifjn of cream of 
tartar, etc., au'l tluMi in a,irim')iiia (even f,li(; va]>or will 
change it), in solutif>n of washing Sfjda, h.iking soda, borax, 
soap, and varions washing jjowders. If the ))ay>er is wajihed 
in miming w.'itnr aft(;r being tnrned ])liie with annrionia, a 
test ior acid may usually be fcmnd in milk, mcjlasses, and 
sr)metimc;s butt(!r. One pi(;e<! of j)ap(;r will Ix; fotmfl tf) ttirn 
from bine to red ,'uid l)a(:k again to bhw; an ind(;(ini tc nnmbcr 
of times when wet with r.ohitioni; of acid:; and alkalies alter- 
nately. 

Huy five cents' worth of hydrochlorie acid and a little 
caustic soda at the druggist's. As caustic soda is unpleasant 
to handle, it is best to have the druggist dissolve it in water. 
Now jKjur a part of the acid into a saucer or glass, with a 
little water, and a'ld the solntion of caustic soda until the 
mixture 1)egins l,o turn the litmui; faintly blue. In an agate- 
ware; dish, fnn; from worn places, (;vapf)rate the solution to 
dryness. A whitish substance will b(; found, which by test- 
ing will be recognized as C(jnunon salt. 

I'Vom two very active chemic^.al substances has been 
formed a neutral s.ubstance — salt. Not all salts, however, 
are neutral. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is chem- 
ically a salt, but it is made up of a very strong alkali forming 
clement — sodium — and a v(;ry w(;ak acid — carbonic acid — 
and tin; alkali ])roperties pr(;dominate. ('rc^.un of tartar is 
an e.Kample (jf an acid salt. It is acid ])(.)tassium tartrate, 
whicli is a double salt, that is, tartaric acid is added to neutral 
potassium tartrate, the result being a substance which has 
acid properties. Connnon alinn is slightly acid U) litmus paj^er. 



17Z 



PROGRAM 159 

Soap 

Soap chemically cDnsidcmd is a salt, made up of a fat 
acid and the metallic substance sodiuni. The fatty acid 
can be separated by addinji^ any acid lik(' vinej^ar to a solu- 
tion of soap, if the Solution is warm, it rises as a scum 
to the top. It can be dissolved in ammonia, forminj^ an 
ammonia soaj). The sodium part of the soap unites with 
the acid and forms a s.ill. 1 1 liydroehloric acid is adde<l to 
a Soaj) solution (a suflicient <|u;intity to make the solution 
very sli^ditly acid), the fatty acid rtMnoved, and the residue 
evajjorated to dryness, common s.'dt will be found. 

If lime water Ik; added to a solution of ;;o;i|), white clots 
of "lime; soaj)" will Ix; formed which arc; insolubh; in water, 
but on eollectinj!^ and dryinj; will be found to dissolve; in 
gasoline, nai)htlia, or kerosene. This is why n;iphtha or 
j^asoline is useful in cleaning' bath tu])S, bowls, etc. Quite 
a good varnish can be made of aluminum jsoap, made from 
alum and white soap, dried and dissolved in gasoline. 

Washing Powders 

It is not dilhcult to get some idea of the composition of 
the various washing powders on the market. When acid 
is added to a solution, if there is efTervesccnce, washing soda 
is probably present. A skum would indicate; that soap 
formefl ;i |)ar( of the mi.xture. 

Hard Water 

In the experiin(;ut with cabou dio.xide; it was shown how 
carbonate of lime; might l)e dissolved by an excess of carbon 
dioxide gas, the liicarbonate of lime l)eing formerl, which is 
soluble in water, 'i'his is an (;xampl(; of .111 "unstable" 
chemical compound. Simj)ly boiling drives off I he excess 
of car1)on dioxide gas, leaving the; ordinary carbonate of linn; 
which is insoluble and is deposited on tin; sides of tlu; tea 
kettle or otlu;r vessel. This may be shown by blowin;^ inlo 
lime; wat(;r imtil the cloudiue;;;; which at (ir;;t ap])ears begins 



173 



i6o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

to dissolve. ' As it is difficult to dissolve it completely, the 
solution may be filtered. On boiling the clear solution, the 
milkiness will appear again. 

Hardness that is brought about by the sulphate of lime — 
"permanent hardness " — is difficult to remedy by any house- 
hold means. Washing soda helps a little, but not very 
much. The so-called alkali waters of the west, in addition 
to sulphate of lime contain sulphate of soda and other salts, 
so that they are beyond remedy. 

Reference: Chemistry of Daily Life — The Manufacture of 
Soda. Page 194. 



MEETING IV 

(Study pages 66-88) 
Laundry Work 

Bluing May Yellow Clothes: On page 70 is the statement 
that the repeated use of ordinary bluing may stain the clothes 
yellow. To prove this, dip a piece of white muslin into a 
strong bluing solution — about a teaspoonful of liquid blu- 
ing to a cup of water — dry the cloth with a hot iron and boil 
it in a little strong soap solution. The color will be seen to 
fade. Rinse and dry with the iron. On comparing the 
cloth with part of the original piece, a slight yellow stain 
will be seen. This is oxide of iron (iron rust) and can be 
proved to be such by adding a drop of pure dilute hydro- 
chloric acid and then a drop of yellow prussiate of potash 
(potassium ferro-cyanide), the intense blue color produced 
being a test for iron. The conditions in this experiment 
are, of course, much more severe than obtained in ordinary 
washing, as most of the bluing is washed out before the 
clothes are boiled again, but the experiment proves the pos- 
sibility. As indigo costs about a dollar a pound and Prus- 
sian blue only a few cents, practically all the bluings on the 
market are Prussian blue. 



174 



PROGRAM i6l 

Iron Rust Stains 

Make "rusty water" by letting a few nails stand in a can 
of water over night or longer. Boil some white cotton cloth 
^n a little of the water. Try the same with wool. Strain 
some of the wate r through white muslin and boil the muslin 
in soapy water. 

Stains 

One of the classes gave a demonstration before a large 
audience on the removal of stains as outlined in this lesson. 
As the only way to learn how to*remove stains is to remove 
stains, it would be advisable to make a few, if none are at 
hand, and then try the experiments on them. 

Referenees: Chemistry of Daily Life — Inks. Page 178. 

Laundry Work, by Juniata L. Sheppard, (50c., 
postage 6c.) 
(Send answers to Test Questions on Part II, and report 
on supplemental work.) 

MEETING V 

(Study pages 89-1 11) 
Baking Powder 

Perform experiments suggested on pages 90 and 91. 

Reference: Baking Powders. Bulletin No. 119, Maine Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. (Loaned for 2c.) 
Lighting 

(i) See Experiment page 93. 
(2) Insert the small end of a clay pipe stem in the inner 

part of a candle flame and touch a lighted match to the 

other and so prove that the candle is a "gas factory. " 
3) With a piece of wire gauze make the experiments 

illustrated on page 95. 
(4) Visit the local gas plant if there is one — or the electric 

light station — obtaining permission first from the office. 



175 



l62 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 

Electric Batteries 

(i) Detach one of the batteries that furnish the current 
for the electric bell, attach a wire to each pole and place 
the other ends on the tongue and note that the electric 
current gives a slight "taste" — i. e., stimulates some of 
the nerves of taste. 

(2) Get some one to explain the action in an electric bell 
or send 2c. stamp to the School for circular giving descrip- 
tive diagram, diagrams for bell wiring, etc. 

Plants 

Examine with a microscope the "breathing pores" on the 
under surface of leaves. 



MEETING VI 

(Study pages 1 1 1 - 1 2 2) 

Chemical Formulas 

Reference: "Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, " by Rich- 
ards and Elliott. Pages 9-30. ($1.00, postage 

IOC.) 

"Elementary Chemistry. " Text book of Ameri- 
can School of Correspondence, (Postage 4c.) 

Housekeepers' Laboratory- 
Make some of the tests described. 

Reference: "Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple 
Methods for their Detection. " Bulletin No, 
100, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department 
of Agriculture. Send loc, (coin) to the Supt 
of Documents, Washington, D. C. 

(Send answers to Test Questions on Part III and report on 
supplemental work.) 



176 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 



A NATURAL starting point in the art of cookery 
is the fire, since cookery without heat is an im- 
possibihty. Human beings everywhere use fire to pre- 
pare their foods and by such appHcations of heat man 
first showed his superiority to the beasts. 

FIRE 

Among the ancients fire was regarded as a gift from 
the gods, to be protected in every way, and all civiliza- 
tion, forms of religion, civil ordinances, and family life 
have been traced to the care primitive man bestowed 
upon his fire. Among the early tribes, the chieftain 
was often the only one to have a fire in his home. 
The hearthstone thus became the center of the home 
life, the abode of the household gods, and even at the 
present time it is impossible for some persons to sep- 
arate the spirit of the home from the kitchen fire. 

In different sections of the country may still be 
seen all the types of fire and stove that have been Anciont 

J i stoves 

developed through centuries, and every housekeeper 
should be familiar with the principles underlying the 
care of each. Among these are the camp fire where 
food is broiled over coals or buried in hot ashes, the 
charcoal brazier of the fruit vender, essentially the 
same as the portable stoves found in Pompeii, the open 
fireplace, the brick oven, the Franklin stove, (an in- 



177 



2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

vention of Benjamin Franklin), cookstoves adapted to 
wood, to hard and soft coal, to kerosene, to gas, and 
the electrical appliances which as yet are little more 
than toys for the rich. 

A century and more ago chimneys and fireplaces 
were often troublesome by smoking 
and Count Rumford and Benjamin 
Franklin each in different ways 
brought their inventive faculties to the 
solution of this serious problem of 
daily life. When the fireplace was the 
dependence of the home for w^armth 
and cooking, the charred, half-burned 
brands of wood were carefully covered 
, „ ^, with ashes at nig^ht to start the fire the 

A Roman fetove o 

or Brazier. j^cxt moming. If the wind had blown 

off the ashes and the coals were gone out, it was easier 
to borrow more coals from a neighbor than to use the 
flint to produce a spark. All this was changed when 
matches were invented. 

It was but a step for primitive man from baking in 
Ovens i^Q^ ashes or in a covered kettle set on the coals to a 
simple form of oven. Often one oven served a com- 
munity. Brick ovens were built at one side of the 
chimney. Sometimes the heat was turned through a 
flue to heat these ovens, sometimes a fire was built 
directly in the oven, and when it was burned down the 
oven was swept out and the food put in to be cooked 



First 




178 



FIRE. 3 

by the heated bricks. The later brick ovens, still used 
in some old houses, often had space underneath for 
a separate fire. 




An Oven, Showing Direction of the Hot Gases. 

For the open fire, wood is the most satisfactory fuel 
but it is not desirable for continuous use in cooking or 
heating. Wood is sold by measure, which is an in- 
accurate method at best. The drier the wood the better 
it burns, and a hard wood which produces coals is 
most useful. 

When wood is heated and the volatile portions ex- 
pelled, charcoal is produced. This is usually sold by 
measure. Its weight is about one-fifth that of the wood 
from which it is made. It is a primitive form of fuel 
and generally used in warm countries. A succession 
of small fires which can be quickly lighted and as 



Wood 
as Fuel 



179 



4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

quickly extinguished are more suitable to such condi- 
tions than the one large stove or range. 

The small stoves used today by the Latin races and 
their colonies do not differ materially from those of 
the early Romans. 
Charcoal The charcoal broiler is used by many hotels because 

of the flavor it appears to develop in meats. 

Peat is an important fuel in some sections of the 
world. It must be thoroughly drained or dried, and 
at best contains a large percentage of ash. 

Both anthracite and bituminous coal have been in 
common use for less than a hundred years. 
Hard Coal A dcusc soHd, Hkc hard coal, kindles slowly but 

requires far less care to maintain a fire than wood. 
Coal is a better fuel for winter than summer. If the 
lumps of coal are too large they will not kindle readily ; 
if too small, they choke the flame. The large nut and 
tgg grades are best suited to cooking purposes. The 
draft and size of the fire box determine the size and 
grade to be used for good results. The free burning 
"Franklin" coal should be used with poor draft, while 
with a good draft and large fire box all grades and the 
larger sizes may be used. A dark brilliant coal will 
have fewest clinkers. The intense heat resulting from 
open drafts fuses in large masses the foreign matter 
which is mixed with the carbon. By burning oyster 
shells in such cases, new compounds are formed which 
prevent the clinkers, but the clinkers seldom form with 
a moderate supply of air. 



180 



FIRE. 5 

Soft coal needs very different treatment from hard. 
Little draft underneath is required, but some draft is 
necessary over the top to burn the gases given off, and 
the funnel draft must be open to allow the smoke to 
escape. If the coal has **coked" over on top it must 
be broken up when good fire is required. If the fire 
is to be kept, it is allowed to coke over. 

Briquettes are made from coal dust and other sub- 
stances and are used extensively in places where coal 
is high priced. 

The wood and coal stoves and ranges are today the 
most common means of cooking foods. Housekeepers 
often become familiar with one stove and one kind of 
fuel and are unsuccessful with another because ihey 
are unwilling to study the laws of nature, or lack the 
patience to experiment with a new adaptation of them. 

Much besides personal preference must be con- 
sidered in the proper valuation of fuels ; not only the 
percentage of carbon, moisture, and volatile matter in 
each, but the necessary waste, the by-products, and 
the time required for caring for each and keeping the 
surroundings clean. 

The best stoves and ranges are those plain in finish 
and simple in construction, with parts well fitted to- 
gether so that they can be taken apart if necessary 
and easily cleaned. 

A portable range is one that may be moved if neces- 
sary, while the "set" range is built into the chimney. 

The fire box is lined on the sides with a kind of brick 



Soft Coal 



stoves 

and 

Ranges 



Fire-Box 



181 



6 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 

above which the fire should never come. The revolv- 
ing grate is the most common in recent styles of stoves. 
There is a grate underneath, and below is a place for 
ashes or a pan which may be taken out to empty. The 
oven is surrounded by spaces through which hot gases 
circulate. 

The housekeeper should investigate her stove thor- 
oughly when the fire is out, take off all covers, open 
doors, remove the ''clean out" plate for the space under 
the oven ; then see Low the dampers work and explore 
all passages with a lighted match or candle if need be. 
The Draft '^^^^ draft givcu by the chimney depends upon the 

difference in temperature between the air of the room 
and the gases of combustion. The hot gases are more 
expanded and therefore lighter and tend to rise. The 
hotter the fire the greater the draft will be. 

The supply of air is as essential as fuel for a good 
fire ; combustion depends upon both. Smoke and an 
accumulation of soot are indications of incomplete 
combustion. 

Several drafts and dampers are common to all wood 
and coal stoves and ranges. They should be open to 
start the fire, but closed to keep it. The slide under the 
fire box supplies the fresh air necessary for perfect 
combustion. A check in the ])ipe or at the back of 
the stove under the pipe, or in both places, is usually 
known as the chimney damper. A slide in the stove 
pipe or connected with the chimney damper admits 
cold air into the stove pipe when opened and thus les- 
sens the draft. 



182 



FIRE. 7 

The oven damper turns the heated air away from oven 
the pipe so that it goes over the top, down the side, ^*"'p«'^ 
under the bottom, and up the back flue in most stoves 
and heats the oven before it makes its escape. These 
differ sHghtly in different ranges but the purpose of 
each is the same. Experiment with your own stove 
until you can control it. 

Many ranges have a slide or door above the fire 
box which may be used for broiling. Hoods are some- 
times placed over large ranges to gather odors and 
excessive heat and convey them to the chimney. 

Whether the fuel be coal or wood, the starting: of a 

Kindling 

fire and its care afterwards are much the same pro- the Fire 
cess. First remove ashes, brushing off the top of the 
oven under the covers. When the fire box is clear, 
put in crumpled paper, bits of wood, and then larger 
wood and a sprinkle of fine coal. See that all drafts 
are open. Replace the covers and then blacken the 
stove, if necessary, but polish after the fire is started. 
Light the paper and as the wood settles down, add coal, 
little by little, till it is even with the lining of the fire 
box. When the blue flame of coal disappears, close 
the oven damper, and a little later shut the slide under 
the fire box and the chimney damper. Open the 
damper when more coal is added. When coal is red 
it is nearly burned out. 

To keep a fire several hours shake out the ashes, 

To Keen 

fill with coal, close the dampers, and partially open the Fire 
the slide above the fire. 



183 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, 



Gas 

Burners 



For continual use it is better to add a little fuel at 
a time, but not in the midst of baking anything. With 
wood and soft coal the chimney damper cannot be 
closed as much as with hard coal, because there is more 
soot and smoke which must be allowed to escape. 
Gas is an invisible fuel obtained from several sources. 
Pure coal gas is more satisfac- 
tory than natural gas, or than the 
so-called "water gas." The es- 
cape of the latter is less easily de- 
tected and it is much more poi- 
sonous, hence there is more dan- 
ger in using it. 

For institutions at a distance 
from large towns a private sup- 
ply of gas which is fairly satis- 
factory is made from gasoline, 
and acetylene gas is now 
often made even for the single 
house. 

For fuel purposes, the burners are so constructed as 
to admit sufficient air with the gas for complete com- 
bustion. A bluish flame is produced, which is much 
hotter than the yellow blaze used for light. 

It is possible to admit too much air, which causes a 

loss of heat. If the air supply is adjustable, close the 

opening for the air until a yellow flame is produced, 

and then open it until the flame just comes blue again. 

If a burner in a gas stove "burns back" and shows a 



^Ag. 




Bunsen Burner. 



184 



FTRH. 9 

yellowish flame, leaving a deposit of soot on the bottom 
of kettles, turn it out and light it again, being careful 
that the gas does not ignite back in the pipe before 
it mixes with the air. 

Gas stoves should be connected with the main sup- 
ply by a pipe large enough to insure sufficient supply of 



Oas 

Stoves 




Gas Stove with Oven. Broiler, and Hot Wa- 
ter Heater Attachment. 

fuel under all conditions. The amount used can then 
be regulated by the cook for each burner. Care must 
be taken to keep the burners and all parts of the stove 
perfectly clean. 

The gas stove is especially adapted to the conditions 
of the present age ; it is far less care than either wood 
or coal ranges, and at ordinary rates for gas, less ex- 
pensive when properly operated. Even at high prices 



Advantagep 
of Gas 
Stoves 



185 



10 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Gas 
ileter 



for gas it is a cheap fuel if human energy and time 
are considered. The application of a match makes the 
full power of the stove available at once and as soon as 
work is done, the flame may be shut off. Any desired 
degree of heat may be obtained at short notice with 
no waste of fuel and no debris to be cared for. The 
stoves occupy small space and each part may be used 
independently. 



J'^X 



CUBtC 




FEET 




CUBIC 



U)0 TM0U9ANO 10 THOUSAND 




FEET 




(a) (b) 

Dial of a Gas Meter, (a) At the Beginning of a Month, 
(b) After Registering the Amount of Gas Used for the Month. 

The housekeeper should learn to read a gas meter. 
Each space on the right hand circle passed by the hand 
indicates the consumption of loo cubic feet of gas, on 
the middle circle i,ooo feet, and on the one on the left 
hand 10,000 feet. Read from left to right, taking the 
ifigure just passed by each hand and add two ciphers 
for the hundreds. A previous reading deducted from 
the present one shows the amount of gas consumed in 
a given time. 

Example. In the illustration, the hand on dial A has 
just passed the figure 7, indicating 700 cubic feet; on 
dial B the hand has passed figure 8 (note that this 



\86 



FIRE. 



II 



hand moves in the opposite direction to the first), and 
on dial C the hand has last passed the figure 4. The 
reading is then, 700+8,000-1-40,000-^48,700 cubic feet. 
If in a month the hands are 
in the position indicated in the 
second figure, the reading is 
64,900 cubic feet. The dif- 
ference between the two read- 
ings is 64,900 — 48,700^=^16,- 
200 cubic feet. Sixteen thou- 
sand two hundred cubic feet 
is the amount consumed for 
the month. 

The small dial at the top of 
the illustration indicates cubic 
feet and is used only for test- 
ing the system for leakage. 

Kerosene and gasoline are 
useful fuels for summer and 
emergency use. These are 
sold by the gallon and only 
the best qualities should be 

used. The blue flame kerosene probably are the best 
of this class of stoves. The small lamp stoves also 
have merit. They are similar in construction to read- 
ding lamps and should receive equal care. Two small 
stoves often are more useful than one large one, be- 
cause more readily moved where needed. It is essen- 
tial that such stoves should stand out of a draft. 




steam Cooker, Circular 
Form. 



Kerosene 

and 

Gasoline 



187 



12 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 



steam 
Cooker 



Chafing 
Dish 



A Steam cooker is an invaluable adjunct to the small 
stoves whether gas or kerosene is burned. Several 
articles may thus be cooked over one burner and both 
time and fuel are saved. 

The Aladdin oven is an arrangement for saving 
heat. It may be used with an 
ordinary large lamp or with gas. 
The iron oven is placed inside a 
jacket of non-conducting sub- 
stance, hence little heat is lost. 
It is especially useful for slow 
cooking. 

The Norwegian cooking box 
is another plan for saving heat. 
A kettle of food is raised to the 
boiling point and then packed in 
a box lined with non-conducting 
materials. 

The modern chafing dish is 
but slightly different in effect from the primitive char- 
coal stove or brazier. The use of alcohol for fuel 
makes it simple and clean. Wood alcohol — a by- 
product from distillation of wood — is often used for 
fuel, but its disagreeable odor makes it less desirable. 

Anything that may be cooked over any other stove 
in a frypan, saucepan, or double boiler may be pre- 
pared in the chafing dish. 




Aladdin Oven Hoated 
by Lamp. 



188 



FIRh. 



13 



Heat brings out the flavors in food and develops 
nev^ ones and makes soluble, substances which the 
human stomach could not otherwise digest. In most 
cases moderate heat long continued produces better 
results than intense heat applied for a short period. 




A MODIFIED NORWEGIAN COOKING BOX. 



Graniteware Pails with tight covers are packed with asbestos and covered with a pad, the 
lid of the box is then closed and the whole wrapped in an old blanket. 

The degree of heat best adapted to make food digesti- 
ible is not always that which produces the most ac- 
ceptable flavor, hence cooking must be more or less of 
a compromise. As yet we know little about the de- 
gree of heat best suited to the perfect cooking of each 
food and the temperature at which it should be served. 
Nothing will cook until it is warmed, and warming 
and drying are usually the first steps in the cooking 
process. 



Effects 
of Cooking 



189 



u 



FK1NC1FLE6 OF COOKERY. 



Transmis- 
3ion of Heat 



Boiling 



Roasting 



The transmission of heat from a fire to our foods 
may be by conduction, as when heat travels along a bar 
of metal, by convection, when heat is transferred by 
the motion of heated liquid or gas, and by radiation 
through the air. The effect of heat on the food is fur- 
ther modified by the way the metal or other substance 
containing the food is affected by heat. 

The use of asbestos in the form of mats and linings 
for ovens and jackets for kettles to modify the heat 
transferred to food is likely to increase in the future. 

Broiling probably was the first attempt at cooking 
since it required little beside the fire and the heat. 
Roasting is a similar process applied to larger sections 
of meat and therefore requiring a longer time. The 
relationship of roasting and broiling is most apparent 
with a gas range for there is no line of separation be- 
tween the cooking of thick steaks and thin roasts. 
Much so-called roasting is really baking. 

In broiling and roasting, tender portions of fish, flesh 
or fowls are exposed to intense heat at first to sear the 
outside and close the open tubes or pores which con- 
tain the juices. The fire should be free from smoke 
and may be charcoal or half-burned wood or coal or 
gas. After the surface is browned the section of meat 
should be drawn away from the intense heat and kept 
at a more moderate temperature until cooked thor- 
oughly. More depends upon the shape of the article 
to be broiled or roasted than upon the weight. 

When a thick mass is to be cooked in this fashion it 



190 



FIRE. 15 

becomes necessary to modify the heat on the outside and Basting 
to aid in driving it in by the process known as basting ; 
that is, dipping up the hot fat which has dripped into 
a pan beneath the meat and hence is known as drip- 
ping, and pouring it over the outside of the mass. The 
glossy brown secured by basting may have suggested 
to some early cook the advantage of deep frying. 




Chaflng-Dish — the Modern Brazier, 

The difference between broiling over coals and in a 
hot pan is but slight and dry frying or sautering is a 
similar process. Toasting is a similar application of 
heat to foods already cooked once. 

The earliest forms of baking were in the hot dishes 
and then in covered kettles set in coals or hung over 
the fire. Our ovens are an outgrowth from those 
primitive methods, and now much so-called roasting 
is really baking. 

A point to study in this connection is the fact that 
food is fuel for the human body. The amount and 



191 



i6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

quality of fuel is varied according to the work to be 
done, so should the food be chosen according to 
the work of the individual and the climate or season 
of the year. 

WATER 

Water is not always considered to be strictly a food 
in itself, but by its aid many foods and flavors are put 
in forms more acceptable to the palate and more readily 
absorbed by the body than they could be in any other 
way. 
Importance Immcnsc quantities of water are necessary for 

ui Cooking the preparation of food and the cleansing of dishes 
in addition to what is needed for laundry and bathing 
purposes. Cities make provision from some source 
safe from contamination for the water needed by their 
inhabitants. In small communities the individual fam- 
ily must each be responsible for its water supply. This 
is not the place to discuss the medical aspect of the 
water question, but all agree that water should be 
above the suspicion of danger of transmitting disease. 
Moreover, for household purposes water should be 
clean and soft, since hard water containing mineral 
salts hinders processes of cooking and cleaning. 

A limited water supply or inconvenient arrangements 
for its use and disposal afterward, tend to reduce the 
consumption to such an extent as to interfere with the 
proper cooking and service of food, if not below the 
actual standards for health. 



192 



WATER. 17 

Nearly three-fourths of the human body is water and 
a similar proportion will hold in most foods served at 
our tables. The total amount of water taken by a 
human being daily averages two or three quarts, or 
from four to six pounds. The portion of this which 
is taken as a beverage depends upon the solidity of the 
food. 

The benefit gained from mineral waters often is quite 
as much due to an increased consumption of water as 
to the mineral constituents they contain. The tendency 
of civilized man in feeding himself is toward too con- 
centrated foods, too little water as a beverage and too 
little watery food. Water not only brings solids into 
the stomach in an acceptable form, but it is essential 
in building new tissues and removing wastes. The in- 
side of the body, as well as the outside, sometimes re- 
quires washing. 

The temperature at which water is taken into the 
stomach is an important point. A glass of cool water 
sipped slowly may have as stimulating an efifect as one 
of wine. Often more ice than water is found in the 
glasses on American tables, and the ice water is taken 
hurriedly and interferes with digestion. 

Hot water taken slowly will often revive tired peo- 
ple as effectually as tea or coffee. The merit of soup 
as a first course at dinner probably is due to the fact 
that it contains ninety to ninety-five per cent hot water 
and that the solids are largely in solution and absorb- 
able. 



Miners 
Water 



193 



i8 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Flavor 
of Water 



Dishwashing 



If clear hot water is an unpalatable beverage, salt 
or lemon juice may be added to give a distinct flavor. 

There is a marked difference in flavor between water 
freshly boiled and that which has been kept hot for a 
long time. The latter has lost the gases which give 
life to fresh water. For any purpose in cooking stale 
water will injure the flavor of foods whether it be 
taken from a hot water faucet or from a teakettle where 
it has stood for hours. 

Other ill flavors come into our foods because of im- 
perfect utensils, badly washed. A rough surface or 
seam will retain something from previous cooking to 
add to the next substance cooked therein, or greasy 
dishwater or soap may be left in sufficient quantity to 
give an appreciable change of flavor. 

Another important use of water essential in good 
cooking is for the cleaning of utensils. 

Dishwashing is not a popular occupation probably 
because repairing or setting to rights is never quite as 
interesting as the construction of something definite. 
Insufficient appliances and inconvenient conditions for 
the work are other causes for its unpopularity. 

With a convenient sink of the right height, ample 
table room for soiled and clean dishes, abundance of 
towels and hot water, dishwashing loses its terrors. 

A knowledge of the composition of each food and the 
way it is affected by different degrees of heat is as de- 
sirable in dishwashing as in cooking. For example, 
where gelatine has dried on a strainer it should be 



.94 



WATER. 19 

softened in cold water, but that treatment would not be 
helpful if the strainer had been used for fry fat, while 
an egg beater plunged in boiling water would be all the 
harder to wash because the ^gg would be cooked. 
Time is saved by careful sorting and scraping of dishes 
before washing. Detergents are helpful but less im- 
portant than abundance of water. 

Strong soda water boiled in a utensil will remove soaking 
food that has burned on. Soaking is as helpful in Wishes 
dishwashing as in the laundry and dishes that cannot 
be washed as soon as used should be covered with 
water. After washing, any dishes are improved by 
rinsing in scalding water. 

The usual plan is to wash dishes in this order, glass, 
silver, crockery, cooking pans, or kettles." Often it is 
more desirable to get the large pieces out of the way 
first. 

It is half a century since the first dishwashing ma- 
chine was invented and though they are in general use 
for hotels, hand work seems better adapted to most 
households. 

To illustrate the effect of the range of temperature 
from the block of ice at 32° F to the steaming kettle at 
212° F let us follow the process of making a simple 
gelatine jelly. The gelatine has been extracted for us 
in factories from bones of animals and needs no cook- 
ing, but must be dissolved and combined with liquid 
and flavoring. It is first softened in cold water, the 
time required varying according to the size of the parti- 



195 



20 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

cles of gelatine. Then it must be dissolved with boil- 
ing liquid. Use only as much boiling liquid as is neces- 
Geiatine sarv to dissolve the ijelatine. The su2:ar, if that is to 

Jelly ■' ^ ... 

be used, added next, because it will dissolve more 
rapidly in a warm medium, and then is put in the fruit 
juice or whatever is to flavor the jelly. 

The compound is to be strained and cooled. The 
larger the mass the slower the cooling. 

Experwicnt. To illustrate this put half the jelly in 
one mould and the other half in several cups. The cup 
will be firm before the large mould at any tempera- 
ture. 

To illustrate another point put one cup in a pan of 
snow or cracked ice mixed with coarse salt. When 
some of the jelly is half thickened combine with it 
whipped cream or white of egg^. 

If possible take temperature of each with a ther- 
mometer. The key to all gelatine desserts, is to have 
proper proportions of gelatine and liquid and to have 
the right temperature for the dififerent stages. The 
proportions are given by each manufacturer on the 
package. 

METHODS OF COOKING IN WATER. 

Water is as essential as fire in all processes of cook- 
ery. No food can be cooked without water and un- 
less it naturally contains a large proportion of the 
fluid, more must be added during the cooking process. 
Boiling Cooking food in water indicates further progress in 



196 



WATER. 21 

this art than either broiling or roasting. It impHes 
the invention of a kettle to contain the water, though 
the earliest cooking of this sort' may have been done by 
dropping heated stones into a hollow one containing 
the water and meat or into a water tight basket. Homer 
and other ancient writers have nothing to say about 
boiled meats, though they mention those which were 
broiled or roasted. 

Boiling, stewing, and steaming are slight variations 
of the same process. Under ordinary conditions, with- 
out pressure, no food thus cooked can be raised to a 
higher temperature than 212° F at sea level, and at 
high altitudes few foods can be cooked in this way, 
since water boils at a lower temperature. 

Experiment. Much may be learned by heating a 
given measure of water and watching it until it reaches 
the boiling point. 

Tiny bubbles hardly larger than the point of a pin 
soon form and rise to the top, but this is not boiling. 
The same thing may happen in a glass of water stand- 
ing for an hour on the table. How will you explain 
this? 

Vv^hen the water is actually boiling large bubbles 
rise rapidly and break on the surface. Keep up this 
process until nothing appears to be left in the pan. 
Where has the water gone? Has anything been left 
behind ? There will usually be a trace of coloring mat- 
ter to indicate that solids do not evaporate. 

This point may be made more apparent by puttjng a 



197 



22 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



"Evaporation 



Choice of 
Utensils 



tablespoonful of salt in the water that is to be evapo- 
rated. 

What is left behind in a teakettle which is never 
cleaned inside though the water is allowed to boil day 
after day? 

Experiment. Other simple experiments may be made 
with two dishes of uniform size containing the same 
amount of water exposed to the same heat, one covered, 
the other uncovered. Which reaches the boiling point 
first ? From which does the water first evaporate ? 

The evaporation of water is an important factor in 
cooking. The rate of evaporation is proportionate to 
the surface exposed to the air and not to the amount 
of water in the kettle. 

Thus the same quantity of syrup or sauce made in a 
shallow pan will naturally become thicker than when 
cooked for the same time in a deep pan having only 
one-fourth the surface. 

The art of the cook is displayed by the proper choice 
of utensils, or, if utensils are limited, by varying the 
time of the process or by the addition of more water 
for different purposes. Where long cooking is neces- 
sary choose deep utensils, . reserving the shallow ones 
for the occasions when haste is essential. 

The use of a cover serves several purposes ; it pro- 
tects the food in the kettle from foreign matter from 
outside, it aids in retaining the heat, and prevents the 
loss of water to some extent, as much of the steam 
condenses and runs back. 



198 



COOKING IN WATER. 



23 



Even without a thermometer it is evident that water 
cannot be made as hot as fat, for a potato, a bit of meat, 
or a lump of dough might be cooked in water indefinite- 
ly without assuming the brown color which would 
come to any one of these articles in hot fat. 

By observation also, we might discover that, however 
rapidly the water in a kettle boils, potatoes or other 
foods do not cook more quickly. ^ In the same way we 
should find that absolute boiling or bubbling of the 
water was not necessary in order to cook some foods. 

Through such observation and experience certain 
common laws of cooking have been established and 
these have been verified and explained by the experi- 
ments of modern scientists. The temperature of the 
water should be adapted to the type of food material 
to be cooked in it. Vegetables containing woody fibre 
to be softened require the boiling-point, while meats 
and eggs, of different composition, will cook more per- 
fectly at a lower temperature. To extract juices and 
flavors of meats and vegetables to the fullest degree 
divide the substance finely to expose as much surface as 
possible to the action of the water and let that be cold. 
Soak first, then heat the whole slowly and. hold below 
the boiling point till the end is gained. 

When water is used only for the purpose of convey- 
ing heat let it be boiling hot when the food is put into 
it. Even then some of the solids in the food will be dis- 
solved in the water and lost unless it be used. In some 
cases, as in strong flavored vegetables, this may be a 



Temperature 
in Cooking 



Cooking 
with Water 



199 



24 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



desirable loss. Mediums like hot fat, a thick syrup, or 
a gravy in which water is thickened with flour, by 
their density prevent loss of shape and flavor in the 
articles cooked in them. Rapid boiling in water tends 
to disintegrate foods. Meats are cooked to rags, 
potatoes become a soggy paste, and no intensity of heat 
is gained. 



stewing 



Braising 




A Double-Boilor — an Invention of Count 
Rumford. 

Stewing implies moist heat, a sort of sweating 
process. Boiling requires much water, at its highest 
temperature ; stewing is done with little water at a heat 
sufficient to soften the substance, but considerably be- 
low the boiling point. Hence boiling is more applica- 
ble to vegetables and stewing to animal foods. 

Braising and fricasseeing and pot roasting are com- 
binations of broiling or frying and stewing. Sections 
of meat are first browned to secure a good flavor and 
then stewed until tender in broth or gravy. 



200 



COOKING IN WATER. 25 

Water is a restless substance and is constantly escap- 
ing from the surface of our foods while they are being 
cooked. Keep the water in the right place, is a watch- 
word against many of the difficulties that arise in 
cookery. 

When a sauce or soup is too thick water may be 
added. On the other hand, when such foods are too 
watery the surplus often may be evaporated by cook- 
ing rapidly, uncovered, for a short time. 

Besides kettles of various shapes, the double boiler ^he 
and the steam cooker are important utensils dependent BoSer* 
for use upon water. The double boiler we owe to the 
inventive genius of Count Rumford. Here is one ket- 
tle set in another containing water, and so long as 
there is water between a food and the fire no browning 
can take place in the food. This utensil is especially 
associated with compounds of milk and with the cook- 
ing of cereals. Though the food in the upper part 
does not quite reach the boiling point, this disadvantage 
is more than balanced by the long time which may be 
allowed for cooking with no danger of burning. 

The steam cooker is found in many patterns, all on 
the same general plan. It differs from the double 
boiler in having several parts above the kettle contain- 
ing the water, each with perforated bottom, so that 
the steam and vapor have direct access to the food. 

The" bain marie" is a French device to serve the same 
end. One large kettle of water contains a number of 



201 



20 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



deep sauce pans. 



Making 
Tea 



Coffee 




Co free Pot for 
Drip Coffee. 



Making 



This is especially useful for food 
already cooked which is to be 
kept hot for intermittent serving 
ni restaurants. 

The prevalent idea that all 
food must be served the moment 
it is cooked is due in many 
cases to imperfect methods for 
keeping it warm. 

For tea and coffee a moder- 
ately soft water is generally con- 
sidered best. 

The different kinds of tea re- 
ceive their name from the local- 
ity where they grow and from 
the size of the leaf, the younger leaves furnishing the 
choicer varieties. (See the illustration and descrij^- 
tion given on page 139 of Food and Dietetics.) 

To make tea, use an earthen pot, fresh boiling water, 
and from one-half to one teaspoonful of tea for each 
half pint of water. Leave covered in a warm place to 
steep for three to five minutes and serve. For cold 
tea drain from the grounds at once. 

Names mean little in brands of coffee further than 
to indicate the original home of a special variety of the 
plant. The berry improves in quality for several years 
but loses flavor after roasting and more after grinding. 
One pound of good coffee measures about one quart 
and will make at least thirty full cups of strong coffee. 
Thus one pound should supply one person for a month 



202 



COOKING IN WATER. 



27 



or four persons for a week. It is better to buy coffee 
in small lots often, unless it is ground as used. 
Cofifee may be steeped like tea or boiled. All things 




STEAM COOKER WITH DOORS. 

considered, the drip coflfee pots are most satisfactory 
and the beverage thus made is more economical and 
uniform and probably less injurious than when it is 
boiled. 



203 



28 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

ICE 

Ice is becoming more and more essential to civilized 
man, not only for summer use but for the year around. 
The future promises many improvements along this 
line, in more rigid inspection of the sources of the 
natural ice supply, in improved facilities for the manu- 
facture of artificial ice, perhaps even in the individual 
home, by the transmission of cold brine as gas and 
water are now supplied from house to house from cen- 
tral plants, making it possible to dispense with the 
iceman's daily round. Patents have been issued for 
methods of cooling houses in summer similar to those 
used in cold storage plants. Food is now sent long dis- 
tances in refrigerator cars and the whole subject of 
refrigeration has received much study. It has been 
found that different foods require various degrees of 
temperature. 
Cold The preservation of food by cold storage is of great 
storage ^jg^efit to armies and navies, but is not an unmixed 
blessing to the housekeeper for it has upset the seasons 
of foods, and when we can obtain a food at any time 
of the year it loses the charm it possessed when the 
season was a short one. Moreover, though food in 
cold storage does not spoil, it parts with something and 
undergoes certain changes which are not fully ex- 
plained as yet. The housekeeper is usually safer in the 
use of canned foods than of those subjected to a long 
period of cold storage. 



204 



ICE. 



29 



The household refrigerator is frequently expected to 
do impossibilities in caring for foods. It is a great 
labor saver when properly used and may be depended 
upon the year around and not merely in summer. 

It should be placed in a cool, light, airy place, con- 
venient to kitchen and dining room unless a second 




A Refrigerator showing Direction of Air Currents. 

refrigerator be placed there. If possible place it near 
the door so that the ice man need not track all over 
the kitchen floor. The cellar is no place for a re- 
frigerator. A good cellar is a safe place for most 
foods, and a poor one will injure the refrigerator. 

In many households the cost of ice is more than 
saved by the preservation of food that would other- 
wise be' lost. The average family will use from one to 
two dollars' worth of ice a month at city prices. 

In modern houses the water pipe from the ice com- 



The 
Refrigerator 



205 



ilefrigerator 



30 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

partment of the refrigerator is often connected with 
the sewer pipe. This should never be direct. Let the 
pipe drip into a spout. 

A refrigerator should have several compartments, 
that foods like milk and butter may be kept apart 
from others. The coolest place is usually under 
the ice. A tile or enamel lined refrigerator has many 
advantages, but any that are properly made if kept 
clean will do good work. Any break should be repaired 
at once, for an overflow of water or a crack in the lin- 
ing may cause an odor which will flavor all food. 

Care of The icc should be washed clean before putting in 
place and no food should ever be placed upon it. The 
jars of water chilling for table use are the only things 
to be allowed beside the ice in its compartment. No 
food should be put away while warm. 

How often a refrigerator should be cleaned depends 
upon the way it is used. If nothing is allowed to spill 
or rub against the sides or shelves, or, when this hap- 
pens, if it is cleaned away at once, and if nothing stays 
there until unfit for food, frequent scalding is un- 
necessary. Every week or fortnight when the ice is 
nearly out remove shelves and scald them thoroughly 
and wash throughout. 

Glass and stone jars, deep earthen and agate plates 
are the best utensils in which to put foods away in the 
refrigerator. 

The principle of the refrigerator Is exactly that of 



206 



Freezer 



ICE. 31 

the Aladdin oven — a closet with shelves is put inside a 
case of non-conducting substance. 

On the same plan, our ice cream freezers are built, ice cream 
The outer tub is a non-conducting substance to pre- 
vent the entrance of heat. 

There are jugs for hot water and coolers for ice 
water constructed according to the same idea. 

Salt is mixed with ice because its affinity for water 
will cause the ice to melt, and when a solid changes to 
liquid form, heat is absorbed from the surrounding 
objects. Cracked ice about the size of coarse rock salt 
is used, the proportion being three parts ice to one of 
salt. 

Ice cream, custard, or fruit juice to be frozen, should 
be more highly flavored and sweetened than if it were 
to be eaten at an ordinary temperature. The "organs of 
taste are benumbed by the cold, and a stronger flavor 
is necessary to produce an effect. The cost of ice for 
making frozen desserts is less than the cost of fuel for 
cooking many, 



207 



Uncooked 
Food 



Preserving 
Food 



PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF FOODS 

All processes of cooking are the result of gradual 
evolution. Nature ripens fruits and seeds in the sun- 
light. Dry nuts and seeds are stored by squirrels and 
other creatures. Primitive men were but little in ad- 
vance of the squirrel when they saved different grains 
and pounded or parched them for food. 

We may understand better the origin of our proc- 
esses of cooking if we first consider the foods avail- 
able without special preparation. Tropical countries 
have always afforded a variety of fruits capable of sus- 
taining human life. It is estimated that many more 
persons may be supported on a given piece of ground 
planted to bananas than by the same surface planted 
with any crop in a temperate climate. The breadfruit, 
fig, date, and raisin are other important fruit foods. 

In temperate climates without knowledge of agricul- 
ture mankind must depend largely upon animal foods, 
and doubtless here would come the first application of 
heat to change the flavor or to aid in preservation of 
the food from day to day. 

The drying of fruits and the smoking of meats natu- 
rally were the earliest methods of preserving foods. 
Probably the preservative action of smoke was acci- 
dentally discovered and the salting of fish may have 
been derived naturally from its association with salt 
water. 

Since all foods are mainly water it was an immense 
advantage to wandering tribes to reduce their burdens 

32 



208 



PRESERVING FOOD. 



33 



by drying their foods„ Even the niost primitive house- 
keepers discovered that in proportion as food parted 
with water it was less Hahle to ferment, mould, or de- 
cay, though the scientific reason for this that most bac- 
teria can live and develop more rapidly in fluids has 
only been discovered recently b}' bacteriologists. 

The modern housekeeper seems to be losing the art 
of drying foods, yet in many cases that mode of preser- 
vation is more desirable than canning or cold storage. 



Dried 
Fuods 




Dried Prunes Before aud After Soaking. 

One reason why dried fruits have fallen into dis- 
repute is this : To remove the discoloration which takes 
place when cut fruits are dried or evaporated in fac- 
tories they are often bleached by sulphur and suffer 
loss of flavor. Another reason for not using dried 
foods is that it takes time to soak them. 

When they are to be made ready for use the first 
step is to supply as much water as they lost from 
evaporation. This is best accomplished by long soak- 
ing without heat, merely cooking them enough at the 
end to soften tough fibres and to prevent fermenta- 
tion. 



209 



34 rKlNCII'l.liS 01' COOKIKV. 

Ilom-y an<l olive oil iii;i\ In- considered uilli llie food 
piodiuts re(|iiiriii^ litlle j)rei);iralioii. They were 
commonly used hy (lie ancients. 
N"t8 Nuls are an important lood in some parts of the 

world, riie peasantry <>1 southern Europe find in the 
chestnut a substitute for cereals, it is made more di- 
j^cstihle 1)\' a ])artial cooking'. The neglect of nuts in 
our country is due to the chea])ness of cereal j)roducts 
l)ut there is an increasin^^^ use of them as a substitute 
for mc-ats. Average shelK'd nnls havi' weight for 
weight ahont twice the fuel value of wheat Hour be- 
cause they ct)ntain so much fat. ( "hestnuts are about 
two-thirds starch, ami contain little fat. ( )ther nuts are 
from one-tiiird to two-thirds fat. 

It is a common idea that nuts are very iudij^estible. 
'IMiat may be changed if we learn to masticate tlu-m 
l»i(>|)eil\' or to ^rind them and combine with other 
foods instead of eatini; them without chewini; pro])i'rly, 
as dessert after suflicient nourishment has been taken. 

Nuts and fruits supplement each other, to some ex- 
tent, the one coiilainiuL; what tln" other lai^ks. 

The lei^uminous seeds, pi'as, beans, lentils, and pea- 
luits, ari' somewhat like nuts, but are not so rich in 
fat and are unpalatabK' unless cooked. Most of our 
common vej^ctables are the result of a^es of cultivation. 

We are only on the threshold of the possibilities of 
combining and ])reserviu_L; fruits. An increased use of 
fruit, fresh and preserved, will tend to cause a di- 
minished use of alcoholic be\'era|L;i'S. bruit juice is one 



FriiitB 



210 



Jellies 



CANNING. 35 

of the best agents to quench thirst. A desire for some 
other beverage than water may be taken as a cry for 
food. Fruit juices, hot or cold, will better supply this 
desire than tea or coffee. The expressed juice of real 
fruit may be sterilized and then charged with carbon 
dioxide, as well as the chemical compounds now sold 
as soft drinks. 

Inferior fruits and skins and cores, if clean, may 
under pressure yield juice for jellies, or to flavor other 
foods. Fruits may be blended, pressed, and strained, 
and used in many ways even for children and invalids 
when the solid particles and seeds would prove irritat- 
ing. The juice of the lemon or orange and the pulp 
of the banana may thus be combined. 

Since modern housekeepers lack patience to dry foods canned 
and soak them out again the canning factory has come 
to their aid. Within the last half century this business 
has developed immensely. Home canning cannot com- 
pete with that of the factory, because there a higher 
temperature is gained which more effectively sterilizes 
the food. 

Canned foods keep because the bacteria in them are 
destroyed and others cannot enter because the air is 
kept out. Fruit will not spoil even if the jar is not 
full, provided the air above it has been sterilized. 

Unfortunately, ignorance of the processes involved 
makes the consumer demand impossibilities in color 
and form, lind this has led the manufacturer to use 
artificial colorings freely. 



Goods 



211 



36 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Preserving 
in Sus:ar 



Canning 



Preservatives of different kinds have been found to 
be cheaper than care and time expended in the prepara- 
tion. Clean foods keep better than unclean ones, but 
skilled human labor is the means to cleanliness and that 
is expensive. 

Pound for pound preserves which include jellies 
made from fruit juice and marmalades from fruit pulp 
with equal weight of sugar keep even if exposed to air, 
because bacteria do not flourish in dense substances. 

Some fruits are preserved half by drying in the sun- 
shine, half by sugar. Spiced fruits were more common 
before the days of air-tight jars, for spices are enemies 
of bacteria. 

The canning of food is not a complicated process. 
Everything must be clean, that is, free from spores 
of mould or germs that promote decay. Such cleanli- 
ness may be accomplished in part by water, partly by 
heat. The jars, covers, tunnels, and spoons must be 
subjected to boiling water to render them sterile. They 
are usually put in cold water which is slowly brought 
to the boiling point. The scalding of tomatoes and 
peaches not only renders the skin easy of removal but 
sterilizes the outside so that nothing is rubbed on to the 
inner surface as it is peeled. 

An accumulation of dust, mould, and decayed por- 
tions, even if each be slight, cannot but afifect the re- 
sult. Therefore the fruit for any purpose must be care- 
fully picked over and washed. Very juicy fruits, like 
currants, may have the juice expressed without first 



212 



CANNING. 



37 



cooking, while others, like the crab apple, require the 
effect of heat to start the juice. 

The utensils for cooking and straining should not be 
of metal if the best flavors of the fruit are to be re- 
tained. Agate or earthen ware kettles, wooden spoons, 
and linen strainers are desirable for this work. If 





PRESERVE JAUS. 
"LIGHTNING." IMPROVED "MASON." 

necessary to use metal anywhere, do it as quickly as 
possible, and never leave an iron spoon in a kettle of 
cooked fruit. 

Sugar is not essential to canning, but is usually 
added for flavor and because fruit cooked in a syrup 
keeps its shape better than when cooked in water. 

The best jars are those having glass covers and 
fastening wnth a spring. The screw tops are easily 
rendered imperfect and are hard to close and open. 



"Utensils 
for Canninf 



Preserve 
Jars 



213 



38 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

The less lettering there is in the glass the surer we 
are of keeping it clean. The rubber rings spoil 
quickly and none that are stretched or brittle 
should be used. New ones are usually required every 
year. Pint jars are more satisfactory for the average 
family than the larger sizes. 

A grocer's tunnel is desirable for filling the jars, 
and a half-pint dipper with a long handle is another 
help. 
Essential The csscutial points in canninsr fruit may be summed 

Points . , , 

Up in very few words. All that is necessary is to have 
the fruit and everything that comes in contact with it 
sterilized, and then keep the air away from it. That is, 
the fruit and whatever it touches must be raised to a 
sufficient degree of heat to destroy any micro-organisms 
already there that would cause change of form or de- 
cay. This being done care must be taken that no others 
are allowed to enter through the air. There is no 
magic about it, only constant watchfulness. 

Gentle cooking, long continued, seems to be fatal to 
the bacteria, which might work so much ill, and this 
method is more conducive to preserving the natural 
appearance of the fruit than is intense heat for a short 
period. 

Fruit, vegetables, milk, and meats all are prepared 
in similar fashion. Animal foods spoil easily because 
of their composition. 



214 



CHOICE OF FOOD 

Primitive man made use of anything near his hand 
to satisfy his need and accidents and extreme hunger 
made many foods appetizing to our ancestors which 
might not appeal to us today if we had not inherited the 
taste for them. 

According to W. Mattieu Wilhams, ''the fact that 
we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep, 
oxen, etc., for the preparation of our food is merely a 
transitory barbarism." Other authorities agree with 
him that the art of cooking may some time be so de- 
veloped as to enable us to prepare the coarser vegetable 
substances in an easily assimilated form without de- 
pending upon animals as middle men. 

The art of the cook has done much to make un- ^.^^ ^^^ 
likely food materials attractive, but there is another ^^ cooking 
phase of the question, and that is the problem how 
to make what we know is nourishing both pleasant 
and attractive. The cook of the past had to make 
the best possible use of the meager nutrients at hand. 
The cook of the present and future has the harvests of 
the whole world within reach all the year around. 
How shall such abundant material be combined to sat- 
isfy the palate without overloading the digestive or- 
gans? 

More important still, how shall we select and pre- 
pare foods that they may produce sufficient energy in 
the human body for the great tasks awaiting it in our 
complex civilization. 

3» 



215 



40 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Classification 
of Food 



Organic 
Foods 



During the last twenty years or less much material 
has been published by the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture recording the results of investigations. Many 
of these pamphlets can be secured for the asking. 

For practical use all the principal substances found 
in our foods may be classified under five heads : water, 
mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. 
The first, and its importance in cooking, has already 
been considered. The second appears in different forms 
in all foods, rarely exceeding one per cent, of their 
natural weight. This it is which remains as ash when 
a food is burned. It is most prominent in the refuse 
portions of food which are removed before coming to 
the table, such as the husks and bones. Some of these 
mineral matters are readily soluble in water, hence are 
lost when no use is made of the water in which vege- 
tables are boiled. 

Common salt is the principal mineral substance in 
use in cooking. 

The other three great classes of food substances 
are known as organic compounds, — the protein, fat, 
and carbohydrate. 

The proteins are subdivided into many classes, but so 
far as practical cooking is concerned, little need be said 
of these here. Since this type of material constitutes 
about one-fifth of the human body by weight it must 
be found in the daily food. Lean meat, eggs, milk 



"Following the nomenclature of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, the term protein is used to denote all classes of 
nitrogenous foods. 



216 



CUOICE OP POOD. 41 

curd, and portions of grains and seeds arc the princi- 
pal sources of this class of food. As a whole, protein 
of vegetable origin is more slowly and less perfectly 
absorbed than animal protein. The principal duty of 
nitrogenous foods is to build up the body and to keep 
it in repair. 

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable j.^^^ 
sources and for the convenience of the cook are com- 
monly separated by heat or pressure. Considerable fat 
is stored as a reserve fund in the normal human body. 
Its principal office is that of fuel to keep the body's ma- 
chinery going. 

Carbohydrates are chiefly of vegetable origin and in- carbo 
elude starch and sugar. They are not apparent to any 
extent in the body but are important fuel foods, though 
more than two pounds of starch or sugar would be re- 
quired to produce as much energy or bodily heat as one 
pound of fat. 

The provider of food, the cook, and the consumer 
all should be familiar with the composition of com- 
mon foods in order that the daily meals may be adapted 
not only to purse and palate but to climate and the con- 
dition of individual bodies. 



hydrate: 



217 



Milk 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 

Milk is a complete food for the young animal because 
it contains the five fundamental types of food ma- 
terial — water, mineral matter, fat, carbohydrate, and 
protein. 

The analysis of average milk is about as follows : 

Per cent. 

Water 87 

Mineral .01 

Fat 04 

Casein , .03 

Sugar 05 



1. 00 
Since the fat is the most valuable portion commer- 
cially, dairymen study to feed their cows in such a 
way as to increase it, and in some instances milk has 
been produced containing 6 per cent of fat. 
Use of Though mainly water, milk is a valuable nutritious 

food and should be used freely by itself and in com- 
bination with other food materials, in soups, sauces, 
and puddings. When we remember what the depart- 
ment of agriculture has proved for us, that a quart of 
milk is quite as nourishing as a quart of oysters for 
which we pay six or eight times as much, we can 
see that it is desirable to use it more freely than is 
generally done. Especially during the summer months 
we do well to substitute milk and cheese for meats. 
There are average families which do not use over a 
pint of milk a day ; there are others who find it neces- 

42 



218 



of Milk 



MILK. 43 

sary to take a gallon, and the meat bill in the latter 
cases becomes proportionately small. A pint of milk 
a day is not an excessive allowance for each member 
of a family, though many households consume much 
less. 

To study the composition of milk put a quart of composition 
fresh milk in a glass jar and leave it twenty-four hours 
or longer until it is thick and sour. What percentage 
of the whole is the cream? Remove the layer of 
cream on top to another jar, screw on the top, and 
shake until the fat separates from the watery por- 
tion of the milk. Collect the butter on a spoon, wash 
out the milk by pressing and folding with a knife. 
Weigh or estimate carefully the value of the butter ob- 
tained. What proportion of the original bulk of milk 
does it represent? Persons fond of unsalted butter may 
thus prepare it for themselves. 

Why is salt added to butter? 

The remainder of the milk, now a thick mass of 
curd, may be pressed out with a spoon or cut with 
a knife to show the greenish water known as whey. 
What nutritive substances are there in this? 

Turn the thick milk into a two-quart pan and fill 
with hot water, in twenty minutes drain the water off 
through a strainer, that no curd need be lost, and pour 
on more hot water. Do this several times until the 
curd loses its sour taste and has contracted, but do 
not allow it to become too hard. If boiling water is 
used the curd will become unpalatable and indigestible. 



219 



Sour 

Milk 

Cheese 



Junket 



44 PKINCirLFS OF COOKERY. 

Buttons have been made of sour milk treated by heat 
and pressure. 

Press as much water as possible from the curd and 
compare the quantity with the original amount of 
milk. Remember that this still contains much water. 
Now combine the curd with butter or thick cream, salt 
it and shape in small balls or pack in cups. Thus 
we learn something of the value of milk and have 
made a sour milk cheese more palatable than when 
the whole mass of curdled milk is heated on the stove 
or strained in a cloth. 

With prepared rennet in liquid or tablet form the 
curd and whey of sweet milk may be separated. The 
milk should be warmed slightly before the dissolved 
rennet is added, then chilled in the dishes from which 
it is to be served. This is known as junket or rennet 
custard. 

Absolute cleanliness is essential for every utensil to 
come in contact with milk. The souring of the milk 
is due to the action of bacteria which come to it from 
contact with utensils and the air. Its fluid form and 
nutritive material afiford a medium peculiarly favor- 
able to the development of germs of disease, as well as 
to the growth of useful bacteria which aid in butter 
and cheese making. 

The growth of such micro-organisms is hastened by 
moderate heat, but most of them are killed by raising 
the milk to the boiling point. 

Sterilization requires a temperature of two hun- 



220 



MILK. 



45 



dred and twelve degrees F, continued for about 
twenty minutes ; this process usually changes the flavor 
of the milk so that it is disagreeable to many palates. 
The high temperature also causes the fat globules 
to separate instead of being retained in the form of 
cream. 

Pasteurization takes its name from the noted French 
scientist, and consists in raising the milk to a tempera- 
ture of about one hundred and fifty-five degrees F. By 
this means the flavor of the milk is unchanged. 

The cook finds it safe to scald the milk for soups, 
bread, cr puddings, to prevent its souring during the 
process, before cooking it with the other ingredients. 
There is a gain in the time of cooking when the milk 
is heated while the other materials are being pre- 
pared. 

A bit of bicarbonate of soda dissolved in milk before 
it is heated often will neutralize any incipient acidity 
and make it usable for puddings or soups. The 
"cream" of tomato soup is liable to curdle unless the 
acid of the tomato is neutralized by soda or the milk 
thickened with flour before the two parts are combined. 
It is safer with all "cream" soups to keep the stock 
and thickened milk apart until just before using. 

Lemon or other acid fruit juices are sometimes 
mixed with milk for sherbet without curdling if, before 
the juice is added, the milk is thoroughly chilled in the 
freezer can. 



To Prevent 
Souring 



Neutralizing 
Acidity 



Mixing 
with Acid 



221 



46 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

Salt sometimes curdles milk, especially when it is 
added to hot milk. 

Since the solid portions of milk readily adhere to 
the bottom of the saucepan placed in direct contact 
with heat^ and the resulting burned flavor rapidly pene- 
trates the whole of the milk, a double boiler or its 
equivalent, one dish set in another of boiling water, 
is the best way to heat milk. 

Milk is an important ingredient in preparing cocoa 
and chocolate, and such beverages rank with soup in 
nutritive value. Hot milk sipped slowly is a simple 
remedy for exhaustion and sleeplessness. Hot milk 
should be served with cofifee when cream is not avail- 
able. The milk soups are valuable foods and have as 
their foundation the white sauce described further on. 

Most of our puddings require milk, especially the 
cereal and custard varieties. 
Cooking Because there are solids in the milk more time must 
be allowed for the grains of rice or corn meal to 
absorb the moisture than when cooked in water. The 
protein portions of the milk have somewhat the same 
effect as the egg used to coat the croquette or oyster 
before frying. If the particles of grain are thus var- 
nished over they cannot absorb moisture as rapidly 
as from clear water. Hence, it is often advisable to 
cook the grains in water first and finish the process 
in the milk. 

In making blanc mange from Irish moss, if the 
moss is first cooked in a small quantity of water and 



222 



MILK. 



47 



the thick paste strained before it is added to the milk, 
there is no loss of milk. When the moss is cooked di- 
rectly in the milk there is some loss of milk when the 
moss is strained out. 

The baked Indian meal pudding and the creamy rice 
pudding require long, gentle baking. There is a 
continual evaporation of moisture from the surface of 



Concentrated 
Milk 




"BLANC-MANGE." 

the pudding pan, and really a condensing of the milk. 
In proportion as the pudding dish is refilled with milk, 
the pudding increases in nutritive value. 

Milk is commonly used for mixing dough of many 
types and this adds to the nutritive value of bread 
and cakes. 

Bread made of milk or part milk will have a browner, 
tenderer crust than bread made wholly with water. 
There seems to be good ground, however, for the prev- 
alent idea that bread or cake made with milk does 



223 



Milk 



48 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

not keep so well as that made with water. A cer- 
tain cheesy flavor develops where milk is a principal 
ingredient. 
Sour Sour milk is often used for mixing griddle cakes and 
quick doughs, because the acid it contains will be neu- 
tralized by the soda added, and thus produce the effer- 
vescence which makes the dough light. The souring 
process seems to have so affected the protein sub- 
stances in the milk that such a dough is tenderer than 
one made with sweet milk and baking powder. The 
use of sour milk will be further treated in the section 
on doughs. 
Skimmed For doughs, soups, and puddings, in which additional 
fat is introduced, skimmed milk may be used as well 
as full milk. 

The use of cream in well-to-do families is increas- 
ing. Whipped cream is demanded as a garnish or 
sauce for many desserts quite complete in themselves. 

The process of beating or "whipping" cream gives 
it an attractive appearance, and by expanding its par- 
ticles probably makes it more digestible. 

BUTTER 

Butter is one of the most digestible forms of fat. An 
ounce of butter a day is a fair allowance for each 
person when meats, lard, olive oil, and cream are used. 
To test this in your own case, divide one ounce of 
butter in three portions, one for each meal, and see 
whether you naturally use less or want more. Or, this 



224 



BUTTER. 



49 



may be tried in a family by shaping a portion of but- 
ter into balls with butter paddles and noting the 
amount consumed by each person at the table. An 
ounce of butter is easily secured by cutting a quarter 
pound pat into quarters. Or, if that is not available, 
measure the butter. Two level or one round table- 
spoonful is equivalent to one ounce. A pound of but- 
ter will measure one pint. 




Individual Shortcakes to be Served with Whipped Crenm. 

Butter is probably rendered slower of digestion by 
cooking, and for this reason it is wiser to flavor foods 
with it after they are cooked. Often it is better to 
allow the individual eater to butter the broiled m^eat, 
or fish, or mashed vegetables, according to his own 
taste. Then there need be no waste if a portion of 
the whole dish is not eaten, and if the food is re- 
heated the flavor is better. 

In one dietary study of the Department of Agricul- 
ture of the United States (Bulletin 75 from ^.he office of 
Experiment Station), so much butter came back in 



Butter 

for Flavoring 



225 



50 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 



Composition 
of Butter 



White 
Sauce 



the platters where it had been poured over steaks, 
chops, and fish, that it was assumed that none was con- 
sumed. Certainly, in every household considerable but- 
ter and other valuable fat finds its way to the dish 
water. One of the first steps in the application of 
science to housekeeping is to stop such needless waste. 

In a glass measure cup, or a tumbler, put a quar- 
ter of a pound of butter, set the glass in a pan of 
warm water and leave until the butter melts. 

Estimate the percentage of clear fat. 

What other substances appear to be present? 

How does this explain the sour and cheesy tastes 
sometimes noticed in butter? 

Milk thickened by flour and made richer with but- 
ter and flavored, is known as milk gravy, drawn but- 
ter, or white, or cream sauce. It is a substantial food 
in itself and forms a valuable addition to fish, eggs, 
meats, and vegetables. By its addition a small por- 
tion of any food substance is extended and made to do 
more service, and flavors too pronounced to be agree- 
able to all are much modified. 

There are several ways of compounding this sauce 
which apply to other sauces in which butter is the 
principal ingredient. A general formula covering the 
ordinary sauces — white, tomato, and brown — is this: 
one ounce of butter, one-half ounce of flour, and one- 
half pint of liquid ; or, to express the same quantities 
in other terms, two level tablespoons of butter, the 
same of flour, and one cup of liquid. 



^ 



226 



BUTTER. 



SI 



1, Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the dry 
flour, cook and stir until frothy all over, then draw 
to a cooler part of the stove and stir while adding 
the liquid hot or cold, then cook again till thick, stir- 
ring till smooth, 

2, Another way is to rub butter and flour together 
and stir into the warm liquid in a double boiler, then 
stir till thick and smooth. 

3, When thin cream is substituted for butter and 
milk, or when less butter is to be used, rub the flour 
smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the re- 
mainder, which should be hot, and cook over water 
until smooth. Then add butter and season. 

The theory of the first method is that the butter at- 
tains a slightly higher temperature than the milk and if 
the flour is combined with the hot butter it is cooked 
more quickly and- thoroughly than when put into 
milk. 

In the second case, longer time is required, but the 
flavor of the butter is changed less than by the first 
method. 

The third way is more economical of butter. 

Butter is also used for brown sauces. These are 
made after the first plan for the white sauce, but the 
butter is allowed to brown before the flour is put in, 
and is cooked until a reddish brown hue is acquired 
before the liquid, which is usually brown meat stock, 
is added. 



Methods 
of Making 



Brown 

Sauce 



227 



52 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 



Varieties 

cf White 

Sauce 



Creamed 
Dishes 



Precautions 

in Using 

Butter 



In many other sauces the plan is similar to that 
followed in making the white sauce, but meat stock, 
strained tomato, or other vegetable stocks, are used 
in place of part or all of the milk. 

These sauces are the foundation of many entrees or 
made dishes, such as croquettes and souffles. 

For meat or fish croquettes the sauce is made of a 
double thickness by using only half as much liquid. 
It is then combined with about an equal quantity of 
meat, seasoned and cooled, when the mixture may he. 
shaped. Souffles have the sauce as the basis and the 
puffy effect is produced by eggs. 

The usual white sauce, combined with an equal quan- 
tity of meat, fish or vegetable stock, gives us the cream 
soup, cream of chicken, cream of cod, cream of as- 
paragus, etc., etc. 

Since butter is not pure fat but contains water and 
curd, it is less desirable than other fats for greasing 
pans unless it is melted and the fat used alone. 

Except in cases when it is necessary to brown some- 
thing quickly, butter should not be used for frying or 
or sauteing. It is too expensive and burns easily. Be- 
cause of the quantity of milk, often sour, contained in 
butter, it is not strange that some recipes for rich 
cake call for small quantities of soda to balance this 
acidity. For such purposes, butter is frequently 
washed to remove milk and salt. 

That butter responds quickly to changes of tempera- 



ture should be remembered in mixing any 



dough, 



228 



CHlillSB. 



53 



like pastry, when a large proportion of butter is 
used. 

Slightly rancid butter may be made usable for some 
purposes by scalding it in water, then chilling and re- 
moving the cake of fat on top. If further treatment 
is necessary the fat alone may be heated with bits of 
charcoal. 

CHEESE 

The origin of cheese is probably more ancient than 
that of butter. It is a form of dried or condensed milk 
convenient for transportation. Milk is nine-tenths 
water, while cheese contains but a trifle over three- 
tenths water. Average cheese is about one-third each 
water, fat, and casein. 

A pound of cheese costing sixteen cents contains 
about twice as much nutritive matter as a pound of 
meat which will vary in price. There will be less 
waste in the cheese than in an average piece of meat. 
Moreover, cheese has the advantage of keeping better 
than the meat under adverse conditions. Its disad- 
vantages are that because of its concentration it is not 
easy of digestion. This may be overcome somewhat 
by diluting the cheese with milk, as is done in many 
of the rarebits, fondues, and souffles. The addition of 
a small quantity of bicarbonate of ]:)Otash or soda aids 
in making cheese soluble. There is danger that the 
cheese will be over cooked. When merely melted it is 
probably quite as digestible if used moderately, as 



Rancid 
Butter 



Composition 



Nutritive 
Value 



229 



54 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

many of our common ways of preparing meat. Judg- 
ing from the types of people who depend upon cheese 
largely it might be used with us more generally than 
it is. The annual consumption of cheese in this coun- 
try is only about three pounds per capita. We might 
well use cheese more freely in cooked dishes, for flavor 
as well as for nutriment. 



230 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERS, 

PART I. 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on nL- 
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy a7isuiers/ro7n the 
lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor 
may know that you understand the subject. Read the les- 
son paper a number of times before attempting to answer 
the questions. 

1. Give a rough diagram of the stove or range with 

which you are most famiHar. Show where in 
the oven and on top of the stove the heat is 
greatest, and explain why. 

2. What is your method of starting and regulating 

a coal fire? 

3. Counting the time required to keep fire and stove 

in good condition, what is the most economical 
fuel within your reach ? 




FEET 



100 THOUSAND I0TH0U5AN0 I THOUSAND 





Fig. 1. Fig. 2, 

4. Fig. I represents the dial of gas meter at the 
beginning of the month ; Fig. 2 at the end of 



231 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 

the month. What is the reading in each case, 
and what will Ije the amount of the hill at $1.25 
per 1,000 feet of gas? 

5. If you use a gas stove, read the meter before and 

after a day's baking and find the cost of fuel. 
If other fuel is used, give the amount and ap- 
proximate cost. 

6. Where, in your experience, would a thermometer 

be helpful in cookery ? 

7. Mention several foods requiring the action of 

heat, vet which need little preparation and few 
utensils. 

8. What different ways have wc of cooking with 

the aid of water ? 

9. Is it possible to cook in water that does not boil ? 

Give examples. 

10. What gain in cooking certain foods over, rather 

than in, water? Describe utensils by which this 
can be accomplished. 

11. What kinds of foods should be kept In the refrig- 

erator? Describe the refrigerator, or whatever 
is used In its place. 

12. What are the essential points in canning fruit? 

13. How should dried fruit and vegetables be pre- 

pared to restore them as nearly as possible to 
their original condition ? 

14. Are there any substances suitable to add to foods 

as preservatives? 



232 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

15. What are the relative merits of paper bags, 
wooden boxes, tin cans, and glass jars for keep- 
ing groceries in pantry or store closet? 

1 5. How can you determine for yourself that there is 
water and fat in milk, cheese, and butter? 

17. Make a menu for meals for two days, introducing 

as many dishes as feasible that contain milk or 
cheese. 

18. Suggest treatment and uses for sour milk, dry 

cheese, and butter of poor flavor. 

19. Make a white sauce three times or more, putting 

the ingredients together in different order each 
time, and report which seems the most satis- 
factory and expeditious. 

20. Are there any questions which you would like an- 

swered, relating to the topics taken up in this 
lesson? 

Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 



23; 




234 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

PART II 



EGGS 

Since the c^p; is similar to milk in composition, both 
cnntJiininj^- water, fat, and protein, withont starch, 
and as there are many simple dishes in wiiich milk and 
eggs are combined, it is natural that that should be our 
next topic. 

The egg may seem a small article to have much space 
devoted to it, but there is no other food so in(lisi)ensable 
to the art of cooking. A French chef has compared 
the office of eggs in cooking to the usefulness of ///(•, an, 
and a, in conversation, both would be difficidt without 
them. ,, „ , 

U;sei Illness 

Aside from its great food value, and there is no c^^ ot Eggs 
of bird that may not be eaten, the tgg is a general 
harmonizer in the kitchen ; it serves to thicken cus- 
tards and sauces; to clarify soups and jellies; to make 
a coating of crumbs adhere to chops or croquettes ; it 
puffs up soullk's ; it leavens a whole grouj) of cakes; 
it garnishes salads and emulsifies oil into a smooth, rich 
dressing for them, and couibined with odd bits of 
fish or meat, it makes many a savory dish of what 
would otherwise be lost. 



235 



56 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

The composition of eggs varies with the kind of fowl 
and its food. The edible portion of the average hen's 
Ggg is nearly 75 per cent, water, 12 per cent protem, 
12 per cent, fat, and I per cent, ash or mineral mat- 
ter. 

Since carbohydrates are lacking, we naturally com- 
bine eggs with starches and sugar which supply the 
class of substance missing. 

Like milk, eggs may be eaten either raw or cooked, 
and the ways of cooking eggs, however elaborate they 
seem, may be reduced to a few siniple processes. 

We shall have the key to all cookery of eggs if we 
study some eggs cooked by moderate and some by 
intense heat. 
Effect To see how the egg is affected by different degrees 
on Eggs ^f heat, we may poach several eggs, or drop them 
from their shells into water at different temperatures. 
When an egg is dropped into a saucepan with cold 
water, and heat applied, before the egg begins to cook, 
the egg and w^ater mingle somewhat, showing that a 
portion of the raw egg is soluble in cold water. As the 
water is heated, this soluble egg becomes cooked and 
rises in a thick froth on top, and if the cooking is 
continued longer, this froth may contract and settle. 
This point is turned to the cook's advantage in clear- 
ing" jellies, soup stocks, and coffccc Thus even the lit- 
tie portion of the egg white adhering to the shell is 
sometimes utilized for cleanng coffee.- 



236 



EGGS. 



57 



When an egg- is droDDcd directly into boiling water, 
the outer portions of it are hardened by the heat. This 
cooked egg docs not appear to be soluble itself and, 
moreover, protects the under portion until that also 
is penetrated by the heat. 

Experiment. — Boil one egg rapidly ; put another into 
the boiling water, remove from the stove, and let 
stand for fifteen minutes or more. Compare tempera- 
tures with a thermometer. See which egg is more ten- 
der, and presumably, more easy of digestion. 

The white and yolk of eggs cook at different tem- 
peratures, and these appear to vary slightly wdth the 
freshness of the egg. For general use it is sufficient to 
remember that 150° to 180° F is ample heat for dishes 
composed mainly of eggs and milk. When starch is 
used, a higher temperature is required, and whenever 
possible, this should be obtained before combination 
with the eggs. Having learned this, we have the key 
to the successful cooking of all custards and the like. 
A custard that has curdled, or wheyed, or settled in 
the center, has cooked too long, or in too hot an oven. 
The custom of setting a custard in a pan of water 
in the oven is wise, for the moisture lowers the tem- 
perature of the oven. Excessive beating of eggs may 
aid the curdling of the custard ; it certainly is a waste 
of effort here, however it may be in cake making. 

Average custards are made with three to six eggs to 
a quart of milk ; naturally the larger number makes a 
firmer custard, but the other is quite palatable. Often 



Temperature 
for Cooking 
Lggs 



Custards 



237 



Eggs 
wjtb Starch 



58 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. ' 



gelatine or corn starch is used to assist in thickening 
milk when eggs are expensive, but these combinations 
are not real custards. 

There is a long list of puddings where a custard 
or Qgg and milk are combined with starchy materials. 
In such cases as have already been stated, it is wise to 
have the starch, whether in the form of rice, tapioca, 
sagOj or corn starch, cooked in the milk before the 




POACHED EGGS ON USH BALLS. 



JJropped 

Ege 



tgg is addedo Bread or cracker crumbs may be com- 
bined directly with the milk, for then the starch has al- 
ready been cooked. 

A single dropped egg may show that water need not 
boil in order to cook an egg. Even if a thermometer is 
not available, it can be seen that the white of the 
egg instantly changes in appearance when it comes in 
contact with water far below the boiling point. A muf- 
fin ring placed in the water assists in keeping the egg 



238 



EGGS. 



59 



in good shape. A little salt and lemon juice or vinegar 
in the water makes the Qgg harden quickly on the out- 
side instead of mingling with the water. 

Since we reckon the cost of other foods by the vaiuc 
pound, for easy comparison we must estimate the value 
of eggs on the same basis. It will be found that the 
average hen's tgg weighs about two ounces, and that 
eight good sized eggs in their shells, or nine or ten 
shelled eggs, weigh one pound. The fuel required, 
the labor of preparation, and the waste are much less 
with eggs than for most other foods. 

Some experiments recorded in **Eggs and Their 
Uses as Food" (Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, U. S. 
Dept. Agl.), show that it cost more than twice as 
much to serve and satisfy at breakfast a family of over 
one hundred women in a college boarding hall with 
mutton chops or beefsteak at less than 20c. per pound, 
than with eggs at 25c. a dozen. 

Commercially, there are many grades of eggs, de- Preserving 
pendent upon their age. Cold storage has done away 
with most other methods of preserving eggs. Anything 
that will exclude air, without bringing ill flavor to the 
eggj will aid in preserving it. Eggs are available al- 
most everywhere at all seasons and even at their high- 
est prices, are not more expensive than the choicer 
cuts of meat. 

An inferior egg injures all other materials with 
which it is combined, therefore it is never economy to 
buy poor eggs. When eggs are high do without them. 



239 



6o 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Variety 



Doin'binations 

to Reduce 

Cost 



making dishes which require lew, if any; then when 
they are again plenty they will be all the more appetiz- 
ing. With proper conditions for keeping eggs, it may 
be economy for some housekeepers to buy a large quan- 
tity in the fall and pack" them carefully in an upright 
position, but many find it better to give the grocer 
a few cents more than to take the time and rfsk of 
loss. 

COMBINATION OF EGGS WITH OTHER FOODS. 

Any fundamental food, like the tgg, must be served 
in a variety of ways or we tire of them. Foods having 
short seasons should be prepared in the simplest 
fashion. 

The nutritive value of the food is not materially 
changed by a variation in the method of cooking, pro- 
vided no additions are made to it. It may appeal more 
to the palate in one form than another, and the time 
of digestion may vary, though in the end as much may 
be absorbed in the one case as in the other. 

To illustrate this point, let us take two eggs costing 
at average prices two cents each, or four cents. 
Whether boiled in the shell or dropped from the shell 
into "boiling water, their food value would be practi- 
cally the same ; when scrambled or made into an 
omelet there is a slight addition of nutritive material. 

But the rigid economist says that eggs at two cents 
apiece are too expensive for the family of limited 
means. Then comes in the art of cooking to show how 
the eggs may be conibined with less costly food ma- 



240 



BGGS. 6i 

terials to make several palatable dishes which may 
take the place of meats and yet require but little more 
labor in preparation. 

First, the two eggs may be combined with one cup of with 
white sauce ; this may be served with the omelet, or sauce 
blended with the scrambled tgg, or made into a souffle, 
or served with hard boiled eggs chopped or sliced. 

The identical quantities might be used in each case. 
By such combination the cost of the dish is doubled, but 
it will go at least twice as far and its fuel value is more 
than trebled. Or, instead of the sauce, we may use 
one cup of milk thickened with white bread crumbs and 
well salted and omit the butter or use less. This will 
reduce both cost and fuel value. 

The foundation may be as^ain extended and varied. ,„.,^ 

^ ^ With 

To the two eo:gs and cup of white sauce miav be added cheese 

"^^ ^ ' or Ham 

two ounces of grated cheese or two ounces of chopped 
ham. If the ham is of average fatness, the fuel value 
of the cheese and ham will be about the same. The 
ham might be more expensive than the cheese were 
it not that this is a way to turn to good account the 
smaller bits of meat. By this addition the dish, at two 
and a half times the cost of the eggs, becomes about . 
five times as efficient in fuel value. 

This combination may be served in many forms, — serving 
the cheese may be warmed in the sauce and poured 
over the eggs hard boiled, poached or made into an 
omelet, and the ham might be used in the same way. 

After mixing sauce, cheese, and yolks of raw eggs, 



241 



('ttko 



fu I'KINi in I'S Oh ( noKl'KV, 

the slill wliihs <)1 llir i\\\\ liiav I"' l'»l<li(| in :iiii| ||ic 
niixliin- l»;iK<(l III niic dr.li or scvriiil lilllr <iiic»S, 

All siicli (■< tiiiltiii.il ions aic ii:iliii.ill\ < ah ii willi some 
form <tl hicad, aii<l luTi' aj^aiii llif wlmlc ((»sl is di- 
iiiinisli«<l Willi an iin rras*- oi fuel valiK". 

A Miniiiiarv "I IIksc |)osmI)Ic i oiiiliinal n tiis iiiay l>'* 
clcai <'i III laliiilai li )i III, as h 'lli tu s 

VVcikIiI. <■"■,! ( .il 

-' '-ggS I <«/ .JC. |()| 

Wliilf Sauce* ; 

I (' iiiilU , , H u/. ji , \ty2 

nuiiri 1 "/ -'t ■ -17 

I'li.iu , , . . , , .K' «»''•• "^i 

( li.tsi* 2 (I/, 2c. • ('< 

I I. nil ' M. .', .'07 

It wniild |)c iiilcicsliii}; lo lra(c lli<- liislory "I **f^"^ 
COolviii|.', and liiid vvlio In si discovci' d llial <.'f^|;s cooked 
in inilK, swctlciictl and llav<»r<'<|, made llie palalahic 
toin|toiind vvc know as ciislai'd ; or wlio Insl discovered 
llie dell* loiis spoiif^v cake oi "diet hiead," as oiu lorc- 
iiD )l hers ealled il 

All oil! model II ieii|MS joi s|)oiij'c cake, aiij.Ml cake, 
lad\ liiij^Mis, and sponj^e diops, aif !)iil slij^lil vaiia 

tion'> llojll llie !e«lpes |(» lie jiilind m old Cool-. Ixioks, 
wilic II rail III! llie vveif^lil «d lln vyy;, in siij-ai aixl liall 
the weij-dil <d (he e^^s in Ikuii. 

'IIk' leiideiicv of llie ailislic cook is lo sepaiale llie 
two pails o| llie e}.',i',, nsiii}.; the \<»ll. Ii» |ii<nlin<- CiT- 
iani ( lle( Is and llie while h a ( il liei s. 

I he pi opt II 1 1< MIS aie ahmil llie same in llie ant;e1 cake 



212 



EGGS. 



63 



as in the sponge cake, but the egg whites only are 
used. The egg yolks, left from such cakes, are more 
desirable than the whole egg for many custards and 
sauces, producing a richer and more creamy effect, 
since the yolk of egg contains considerable oil. 

Eggs in doughs may better be studied here with 
other qualities of eggs rather than later with doughs. 

Under this head may be included noodles, pop- 
overs, Yorkshire pudding, cream puffs, eclairs, tim- 




K(U; TiMIJALES. 



bale cases, fritters of many varieties, as well as sponge 
and angel cakes and macaroons. 

From a study of these distinctly egg doughs we may 
see why eggs are added to muffins, puddings, etc. 

These may be divided into three classes : ( i ) When 
the egg is used merely to stick flour together, such as 
noodles and timbale cases. (2) When the cake re- 
sulting is to be hollow like popovers and puffs, then 
the egg is beaten with the other ingredients. (3) 
Where a spongy texture is desired, the eggs are sep- 
arated and beaten separately. 

For such mixtures as the first class lightness is not 
essential, is really undesirable ; hence, the eggs are 



Eggs in 
Doughs 



Classes of 
Egg Doughs 



243 



64 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 



beaten only cnoiii^h to blend yolk and white, and not 
to mix air with them. In noodles, which are a kind 
x^Toodies of ^SS niacaroni, the eg": snp])lies liquid as well as aids 
in sticking the particles of Hour tooethcr. After a stifif, 
smooth dough is made, it is rolled much thinner than 
would be possible if it did not contain egg. Then it is 




Pop Ovors — an Exaniplo i)i)ii<;h liaised by Ur- Kxpansiuu of Air, 



Timbales 



cut in strips or fancy shapes and may be cooked at once 
or dried and used like macaroni. 

The timbale cases are made from a thin batter, in 
which, to egg and flour, milk and small quantities 
of fat and sugar are added, and the whole beaten to- 
gether until smooth. If the batter is then allowed to 
stand until the air bubbles escape, the timbale cases 
will have fewer holes in them. The hot timbale iron 
is then dipped into the batter and the coating adher- 
ing is fried until crisp. 



244 



EGGS, 



65 



The second class should be hollow, and to secure 
this result the eggs are beaten without separating 
yolk and white, or better still, are dropped in with the 
other ingredients and all beaten togethefo 

Popovers are the result of a very thin batter, usually 
one cup each of flour and milk, one Qgg, and a little 
salt. This is beaten thoroughly together with a Dover 



Popover: 




SPONGE CAKE. 



beater, poured quickly into greased cups, iron or 
earthen, and baked until thoroughly done. Yorkshire 
pudding is a similar combination. 

Cream puffs have a cooked foundation of water, but- 
ter and flour ; to this when cool the eggs are added and 
beaten into it one by one. Because of the scalding 
of the flour this is a stiff mixture and will keep its 
shape when dropped on flat pans, and will puff while 
baking. The same mixture, fried in deep fat, produces 
a hollow fritter which may be filled like a cream puff. 



Cream 
Puffo 



245 



66 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Spongy- 
Mixture? 



Beating 
Eggs 



Cooking 



For the third class of egg doughs and for meringues 
and puffy omelets, the whites of eggs are beaten by 
themselves and mixed with special care into the other 
ingredients that none of the air which has been en- 
tangled may be lost. This air expands when heate.d, 
producing the delicate lightness of the meringue, or 
sponge, or angel cake. 

The use of a whisk on a platter is the best way of 
({uickly converting the slippery egg white into a frothy, 
flaky mass, 'so firm and dry that it may be turned up- 
side down without slipping from the platter. 

Egg beaters are not absolutely essential, for the work 
may be done with a fork in time. The whisks are' 
best for beating whites alone — those with cog wheels 
for the whole egg or for beating batters. 

When yolk and white are mixed, it is impossible to 
beat in as much air as into the white alone, probably be- 
cause of the oil contained in the yolk. Even a very 
little of the yolk will prevent the whites from becom- 
ing a stiff froth. 

Popovers, meringues, and sponge cake, like other 
articles containing large proportions of egg, require 
long cooking at moderate heat. When taken from the 
oven too soon they shrivel out of shape. 

It is not wise to make cheap cakes and try to make 
baking powder take the place of eggs in making the 
mass light. When eggs are cheap, make good cakes 
and custards, but when they are high in price, de- 
pend upon desserts where they are not required. 



246 



FISH, FOWL, AND FLESH, 

Two important animal products, milk and eggs, have 
been studied, and we come now to a consideration of 
the flesh of animals as food. The cooking of the flesh 
in any way is a comparatively simple matter once we 
have mastered a few fundamental laws which are prac- 
tically the same as in cooking eggs. 

The choice of different sections of a creature for 
different purposes and the decision as to best ways of 
cooking whatever cut happens to be available, are less 
simple. 

The primitive cook applied heat to his fish, fowl, 
or section of meat and consumed it when cooked. The 
modern marketmen first divide and clean, then the 
chef seasons and applies the heat in different ways to 
the various portions. One part is naturally tender and 
ready for immediate cooking, another will be better 
if kept a wxek or a month, others will be improved by 
salting or smoking. 

Savages have fewer kinds of food and simpler meth- 
ods of preparation than civilized man. Because of 
greater abundance it is a natural tendency in civiliza- 
tion to discard as refuse certain portions formerly 
eaten. On the other hand, business competition makes 
it necessary to save all by-products and every por- 
tion of an animal is used for some purpose and brings 
some money return, even though small. Were it not 
for this, our animal foods would l)e higher in price 

67 



247 



68 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Meat a 

Secondary 

Product 



Comparative 

Composition 

of Animal 

Food 



Costs of 
Meat 



than they are. As it is, they are the most expensive 
part of the daily food. 

This is partly due to the fact that the flesh of ani- 
mals is a secondary product. Animals consume grains 
and require additional human care, and thus must 
cost more than the grains, themselves, alone. More- 
over, it has been learned by dietary studies that average 
families in the United States obtain from half to 
two-thirds of the protein in their food from animal 
source, and the cost of food is usually proportionate 
to the demand. 

The composition of all animal foods is similar. 
r\Iilk is mainly water, but contains some of each of 
the food principles. Eggs have less water than i-pilk, 
and no carbohydrates, but furnish larger proportions 
of fat and protein. Fish would average about the 
same proportion of protein as eggs, but rather less 
fato Poultry yields more protein than eggs, but about 
the same amount of fat. The flesh of the larger ani- 
mals will average about two-thirds water, the pro- 
tein and fat being in varying proportions according to 
the age and condition of the animal. 

Without regard to the names given by marketmen of 
different localities to the cuts of meat, we may learn 
the location of the choicest pieces. Cuts which offer 
tender muscle or large proportion of muscle will natu- 
rally command the higher prices. 

In any of these animals the framework of bone is 
practically the same. The larger portion of bone is 



248 



MEAT: 



69 



in the forequarter. This is one reason why the fore- 
quarters are cheaper than hindquarters in our mar- 
kets. Consequently, there is less nutritive value per 
pound and what there is is less accessible, for the meat 
is not easily carved unless boned before cooking. 

Meat of any kind should have little odor when in 
good condition. It should be firm and dry rather than 



Judging 
Mea t. 




LAMB CHOPS AND KIDNEYS. 



moist, and should be well marbled with fat. 

The lower part of the legs will have little muscle in 
proportion to the bone, and there will be tendons hold- 
ing the muscle to the bone. 

Muscles getting little motion or exercise will be 
tender, while those which are active will be tough, 
though juicy. The neck and legs, therefore, will be 
suitable for broths but not desirable for roasts. 

A general rule is this : the market value of meat 
increases backward from the head, but decreases down- 



Toughnesj 



249 



70 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 

ward toward the legs. This brings the choicest cuts 
in the back upper part of the creature and inchides 
the rump and loin. 

The muscle of good beef is dark red when first 
cut and grows brighter when exposed to the air for a 
short time. The fat is yellowish white. 
Mutton Mutton and lamb have a hard white fat. The flesh 

and Lamb ^f ni^itton is a duller red than beef. The lamb is 
pinkish in tinge. The bones of veal and lamb are 
smaller than those of beef and mutton. Veal and fresh 
lean pork are somewhat the same shade of dull pink, 
but the pork has more fat mixed with it. 

Meat from young animals is tender but not so nu- 
tritious, and does not keep so well as that from older 
ones. 

The heart, liver, sweetbread, kidney, tripe, are also 
used as food and the same general laws govern the 
methods of cooking them. 

The chef may not recognize the same elements in 
meat that the chemist does, yet his choice and prepara- 
tion of a cut of meat are based upon its composition. 
From this point of view, meat consists of three 
parts : lean muscle, fat, and bone, and the market value 
of any cut is based upon its relative proportion of 
these. 

Lean meat is most desired and tender fibres com- 
mand the higher prices. Some fat is utilized with 
the meat, but a large part goes to the manufacture of 
artificial butter, lard, and soap. Much of the bone is 



250 



MEAT. 



71 



Some Fat 
Needed 



refuse, but some of its substance may be extracted by 
right treatment. 

The lean portion of meats is about one-fifth or twenty 
per cent, protein about five times as much as in an 
equal weight of milk. 

The muscle or the lean meat may be freed from Preparatio 
skin, gristle, bone, and fat, wholly or in part before 
cooking. It is easier to serve when this is done, and 
there is no waste at the table, but there may be loss 
of flavor. Raw meat may be digested readily, but we 
cook it to make it more attractive in appearance and 
more appetizing in flavor. 

Some fat is required to keep the meat from drying 
during the cooking process. Often the muscle is so 
closely associated with bone, tendon, and gristle, that 
to remove them would cause serious loss of juice. In 
any case, when the tougher portions are removed they 
should be used for stock and their flavor returned to 
the muscle as a sauce or used for soup or other good 
purpose. 

Tender muscles may be cooked quickly— steaks and 
roasts — and should be exposed to intense heat at first. 

Tougher portions may be made more palatable by 
pounding to separate the connective tissue, but this is 
often accompanied by loss of juice, or they may be 
put through the meat chopper or cooked slowly for a 
long time in a gravy, or both. 

By browning tough meat first we give it a good Browning 
flavor and sear the surface so that more of the juice will 



Tough 
Meat 



251 



72 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Braising 



Salt Meat 



Fatness 



be retained than if raw meat were used. Some scraps of 
fat may be browned, an onion sliced and fried in the 
fat, an equal measure of Hour added, and when it is 
mixed smoothly with the fat, w^ater is put in, in the 
same proportions as for white sauce. The meat is put 
in the gravy and left covered on the back of the stove 
to cook slowly, later vegetables are added. 

Braised meat and pot roasts are similar in efifect, but 
large pieces of meat are used and more time is re- 
quired. All the trimmings, except the fat, are put with 
the bones, covered with cold water and the kettle is 
set on the stove to heat slowly. 

Salt meats should be cooked slowly in plenty of 
water until tender. When the meat is very salt, it 
should be put on in cold instead of boiling w^ater. 

Wild animals usually are less fat than those that 
have been raised for food. Excessive fat may mean 
disease. Young animals have but little fat compared 
with older ones. Half the w-eight of a pig may be 
fat and a fourth of a fat sheep or ox. Some portions 
of a creature wall contain much more fat than others. 
Layers of fat occur around the inner organs of ani- 
mals. Some fish have fat or oil in the liver and little 
or none elsewhere. Fat mingled wath the lean tissues is 
partly visible, partly detected only by chemical meth- 
ods. 

To a certain extent fat takes the place of water in 
the tissues. In fat meat the purchaser gets the same 
amount of protein but buys fat instead of w^ater. 



252 



MEAT. 73 

The surplus fat purchased with meats should be 
turned to good account by clarifying it for shortening 
or frying. It should be freed from the protein mat- 
ter as far as possible by trimming and soaking in cold 
salted water. The w^ater should be changed often, and 
the fat, after being cut in small pieces, may soak from 
twelve to twenty-four hours. Then it is drained and 



Saving 
the Far 




SAUSAGE AND FRIED APPLES. 

heated slowly to separate the clear fat from the heavy, 
honeycomb-like tissues which contain it. At the end 
of several hours the fat will have melted and may be 
strained from the crisp brown tissues. If raised to 
too high a temperature the fat is less wholesome and 
v/ell flavored 

In the average household, trimmings of beef, pork, 
veal, lamb, and poultry, may be prepared together for 



253 



74 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Frying in 
Deep Fat 



Testing 
i'emperature 



Bones 



fry fat, and where much meat is used will keep a sup- 
ply in the frying kettle. 

Frying in deep fat is a satisfactory method of st 
curing a crisp, brown crust. When the process is prop- 
erly conducted very little fat is absorbed by the food. 

The temperature of fat suitable for cooking is much 
higher than that of boiling water and ranges from 
300° to 400° F, according to the nature of the article 
to be cooked. For doughs which should rise, and fish 
which must be cooked through, a lower temperature 
and longer time arc required than for fishballs or cro- 
quettes, already cooked and only to be browned. 

If many pieces of cold food are put into the kettle 
of fat at one time, the temperature will be lowered so 
much that they may absorb fat and even fall to pieces. 

A bit of bread dropped into the kettle will brown 
in one minute if the fat is right for frying doughs, and 
in less time if it is ready for croquettes. 

Fat by itself does not boil, but when moist food 
is put into it large bubbles of steam begin to form. 
At first the foods being cold and heavy sink to the 
bottom of the kettle ; as they warm and the water es- 
capes, they rise toward the top. 

As soon as the food is brown it should be removed 
from the fat and drained on soft paper before serv- 
ing. 

The bones of animals yield considerable nutritive 
material if we use proper methods to extract it. Mar- 



254 



MhA'I. 



75 



row is found in the leg bones, but they have not so 
much protein matter as the spongy rib bones. When 
meat is boned before cooking, bits of meat cHng to 
the bone. By soaking in cold water, then cooking 
gently, a large part of the flavor and nutritive part 
of the bone is dissolved in the water. Cartilage, gristle 



Extracting 
Nutriment 




MEAT LOAF IN RICE. 

and tendons are also somewhat soluble when exposed 
to moisture and heat. The smaller the pieces into 
which bone and meat are divided the greater the sur- 
face exposed to the dissolving action of the water. The 
flavors of meat which are drawn into the water are 
known as extractives and are stimulating rather than 
nourishing. 



255 



76 



riK/NCI/'LlLS Ol- CODKI'JO' 



Soup I'liis process of extraction l'n)iii portions iinsuit- 

stock .^1,1^^. jj^ ^.,jj j^ known as making- sonp stock. IJonillon 

and hccf tea are made fiom tonj"!! lean meat vvitli littk' 




iMLMO'r (TT I'ltoM SUM': Ol" I'isn. 



Names 
ot Soups 



or no Ixtiie. ( "onsomme is maiK' from meat and ponl- 
try toi;c'tlier. AnylliinL; lliat wonid L^ive a strong' 
lla\(>r ninst hi' remo\c(L The skin of knnl) or beef 
should he thrown awa\. 

The llavorini;" of (he sonp or the i^arnish served in it 
j^ives its distinctive name. All meat, poultrv, and 
fish sonps ha\i' as tlu'ir hasis a slock matU' from the 
I)oriions nndesirahK' to nse in an\ otlui- wa\ . 

Yd slock contains hnt a small proportion n{ the 
nnlrinu'iit ol the imat, and tihn- of thi' meat from 
wliieli sloek has heen made ma\' \)c nsed tor hashes, 
w ith herhs, etc., to tjive llavor. 



256 



FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 



FISHo 



77 



Fresh fish have full lifelike eyes, red gills, silvery, 
not slimy skin and scales, firm, tail, not flabby and 
drooj)ing, and firm llcsh. Plump short fish are better 
than long thin ones of the same variety. The time of 
their transfer from the water to the table should be as 
short as possible. While fish as a whole is not so nu- 
tritious as meat, it may often take the place of meat 
on our tables. It is the province of the cook to suj)- 
plement the fish with such sauces as will supply l)oth 
flavor and nutriment. 

In general, the methods of cooking fish are the same 
as those followed in cooking meats. The flesh should 
be thoroughly cooked, but not overdone. Oily fish, like 



Proper 
Appearanct 



Methods 
of Cookinp 




For Fish Stock. 



I'KKl'AUATION OF FISH. 



Uuady to Fry. 



salmon and mackerel, are best Ijroiled. Almost any 
fish may be baked whole or in fillets. Boiling is an 
extravagant method of cooking unless the water is 
used for a soup or a sauce. Steaming is better than 



257 



78 



PRINCIPIJIS OF COOKERY. 



hoiVmiJ!;, as more of the llavor is retained in the fish. 
Fryini^ in salt i)ork fat is a desirable way to cook tish 
lackinjx tiavor or fat, but for uniformity in cookin.tv the 
kettle of deej) fat is to be preferred to the thin layer 
in a shallow pan. 

If a iish lackiui^ in fat is brushed over with oil or 
melted butter and broiled under s^as, the result i^^ives the 
best effects of fryinp;' without the disac^reeable odors. 



Sauces 
;7ith Fish 




FISH sTiFFioi) AM> 'I'urssKi* von uakinc. 

Fish stock may be kept for several days if convenient, 
or it may be used as the basis of a sauce to serve with 
the fillets of the llesli. 

Since so many varieties of tish lack fat, rich sauces 
are generally considered a necessary acc()iiii)aninienl. 
The com])()siti()n of the Iish and tlie \\a\ in wliich it is 
cooked should (K>ci(k> tlie kind of sauce to be served 
with it. Acids like lemon juice, i)ickles, and tomato 
arc often ai;reeable additions to a fish sauce. 



258 



FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 79 

POULTRY 

Young birds are to be chosen for broiling and other judging 
quick cooking, but full grown fowls are more nutritious 
for broths and stews. A fowl is usually fatter than a 
chicken, the skin is tougher, and the bones — especially 
the tip of the breast bone — are harder. In the skin of 
the young bird there are usually pinfeathers, the feet 
are smoother, and the muscles or flesh are less well 
developed than in the fowl. 

To prepare poultry, pick out pinfeathers, singe and Preparing 
rub ofif the hairs and wipe clean. Cut through the Sissee 
loose skin on the back, pull away from the neck, take 
out the crop and windpipe in front, cut ofif the neck. 

Cut through the skin on the legs about an inch 
below the joint, break the bone, twist the leg and 
pull out the tendons one by one. Take off the wings 
and cut through the loose skin on the sides and sep- 
arate the leg and thigh joints. 

From backbone to tip of breastbone cut through thin 
muscles on either side. This exposes the interior or- 
gans- so that it is easy to learn their relative positions. 
Then one knows how to proceed when preparing a 
bird to roast when the opening is small. 

Loosen the membranes which attach these organs 
to the body, following the breastbone with the fingers 
until the point of the heart is felt. Then remove heart, 
liver, and gizzard together. The gallbag is protected 
by the liver, so there is little danger of breaking it if 



259 




a 

M 

< 

o 

I— « 

o 

Cm 

Oi 

H 
U 
cj 

>-] 

C? 

o 



260 



Order of 



POULTRY, 8i 

they arc not separated. The intestines should be re- 
moved when the fowls are dressed for market. 

Next detach the lungs from the backbone near the 
wings, and the kidneys, which are lower down in the 
back. These are not used. 

Separate the gallbag from the liver without break- 
ing, and cut away any portions of the liver which are 
tinged with green. Cut across the larger end of the 
heart and slip it out of the membrane enclosing it. 
Cut through the gizard on the wnde side and take out 
the inner portion without breaking, if possible. 

Learn the order of removal of these portions from 
the body, and then nothing will be forgotten when Removal 
preparing a bird for any purpose, — the crop and wind- 
pipe from the neck. 

The heart, liver, and gizzard, together, from an open- 
ing near the tail. 

The lungs and kidneys from the hollows in the back- 
bone. 

The oil bag on the upper part of the tail. 

The backbone can now be divided near the middle, 
and by slipping a knife under the sharp end of the 
shoulder blade and then cutting through the ribs from 
the point where the wings come off, the upper part 
of the back is separated from the breast. 

If desired, the fillets of white flesh can be separated 
from the breastbone and wishbone by running the 
knife close to the bones. 



261 



82 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

Never soak a fowl in water, as is often the practice. 
If any parts need washing rinse them ofif quickly one 
by one. 

The breastbone, upper part of back and neck, and 
sharp ends of wings should be put in cold water and 




CHICKEN STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. 



Put in 

Boiling 

Water 



heated slowly ; thus more flavor is extracted from these 
portions which have but little meat. 

When the water is boiling hot the other sections are 
put in and the hot water coagulates the juices on the 
outside and thus more flavor is retained. To accom- 
plish the same end, the joints are often browned in hot 
fat and then are stewed afterward, 



262 



Softening 



VEGETABLES AND GRAINS. 

Like the foods already studied, vegetables are mainly 
water, but all the five food principles may be ob- 
tained from the vegetable kingdom. Here we secure 
our supplies of starch and sugar, or the carbohydrates, 
but the proportions of proteid and fat are, as a whole, 
smaller than in the animal foods. From fruits, vesfe- 
tables, and grains we obtain mineral substances valu- 
able for making bones and teeth and keeping the whole 
system in good condition. 

The woody fibre or cellulose, abundant in vegetable 
structures, is the great obstacle to be overcome by ceiiuiose 
cooking. Plants growing rapidly with plenty of 
water and sunshine usually have less of this fibre, and 
it is the aim of the gardener to eliminate it as far as 
possible. By improved methods of cultivation the 
agriculturist has removed the acrid flavors of the nat- 
ural vegetables and has reduced the proportion of 
woody fibre. 

The cell walls cannot be separated wholly from the 
nutritive substances they contain, and unless softened 
by cooking may irritate the alimentary canal so that 
the whole is hurried through before digestion is com- 
pleted. Cellulose, though of little food value, may aid 
digestion by providing the necessary bulk for its me- 
chanical processes. 

Experiment. To get a clear idea of the structure 
and composition of vegetables, grate a portion of a 

83 



263 



84 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

potato or turnip. Let the pulp fall from the grater 
into a strainer placed over a glass and press out all 
the watery juice possible. Some of the starch of the 
potato will settle from the juice, and more mav be 
washed out of the mass remaining in the strainer. The 
presence of sugar in the juice of a carrot may be recog- 
nized by tasting it after evaporation. 

By examination of the woody fiber left in the strain- 
er, we see how closely it is connected with the starch 
and sugar, how impossible it would be to separate 
it, and the necessity for softening it that we may be 
able to digest the nutrients. 

We discard portions of vegetable foods, the pods, 
husks, cobs, etc., because of our inability to cook them 
so they can be digested. 

Chopping and straining aid the cook in dividing the 
cellulose so that the particles are less irritating and 
the nutrients are more accessible. 

Parts of It is interesting to note the different parts of plants 

^ ^forFood which are used for food — the roots, tubers or bulbs, 
stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds. The last are used 
mainly in the dry form, and absorb much water in 
preparation. This must be remembered when study- 
ing analyses of dried legumes and cereals. 

The botanical grouping of plants is helpful. Once 
we have learned how to prepare and cook one member 
of a plant family we have something to guide us with 
its relatives. Among the principal classes to study in 



264 



VEGETABLES. 



85 



this way are the pulses, the grains, and the cabbage 
family. 

There are many kinds of each vegetable offered by 
the seedsmen. Moreover, any vegetable differs ma- 
terially in different years and at different seasons of 
the year. 

From the standpoint of the cook a convenient classi- 
fication of vegetables may be made according to the 
general preparation, the time, and the amount of 
water required for cooking them. 

Dried vegetables must have abundant water sup- 
plied and must be allowed time to soak, thus absorb- 
ing an amount of water similar to that lost in the dry- 
ing process. There is little difference aside from the 
fat added in cooking, in the analysis of the dry bean 
which has been soaked and baked, and that of the 
green shelled bean. Sometimes we try to hasten this 
process of absorption by heat, but the best results 
are attained when dried fruits or vegetables are soaked 
until at least double in size before cooking. 

Old or strongly flavored vegetables, such as pota- 
toes, turnips, and onions, will be improved by the re- 
moval of the skin and any imperfections before cook- 
ing, and by soaking in cold water for an hour or two. 
Inferior onions may be scalded in soda water before 
cooking, and by changing the water once or twice dur- 
ing the cooking process will be- rendered less strong 
in flavor. It is wiser to make the vegetable palatable 



Dried 
Vegetables 



Strongly 
Flavored 
Vegetables 



265 




a 

t) 



O 

CO 

H 



266 



VEGETABLES. 



87 



at the risk of some loss of nutriment than to retain 
everything and have it uneatable. 

Young vegetables in summer and those having 
sugary juices, like squash and beets, should be cooked 
in little water or by steaming or baking, so that all 
their sweetness may be retained, unless the water is 
reserved for soup or used in a sauce for the vegetable 
itself. 

Slightly wilted vegetables may be improved by 
washing and soaking or by wrapping in a damp cloth 
and placing in the refrigerator or by hanging in a 
draft of air. 

The pulses or leguminous plants include the bean, 
lentil, pea, and peanut. 

In the bean we have an example of a vegetable which 
differs much at different stages of growth. We may 
use the pods before the seeds they contain have 
reached their normal size, the full grown seeds may 
be cooked green, or dry after first being soaked. 

This class of plants is of great value where people 
must be fed at small expense. Thciy are staples in 
in China, Japan, Southern Europe and Mexico, are in- 
valuable in prisons, charitable institutions, and for the 
pioneer or logger. Because they lack fat, cream, 
butter, or pork are added before eating. 

Some varieties like the Japanese soy beans, contain 
as much as sixteen per cent of fat, and peanuts are 
more than one-third, or about forty per cent fat. 



Young 
Vegetables 



Wilted 
Vegetables 



Pulses 



Fat 
Contents 



267 



88 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



uigeetiKiity Though rich in nutrients this class of vegetables ap- 
pears to be slow of digestion. The ease and complete- 
ness of digestion are aided by thorough cooking and 
by removing the skins, grinding, mashing, or strain- 
ing. Long, gentle cooking develops new flavors and 
removes the peculiar granular texture present in beans 
and peas insufficiently cooked, even after straining. 




Feas 



Black Boiui Soui CaruisluHl with Lemon and Parsley. 

The main object in cooking beans, like all vegeta- 
bles, is to softeif the tough fibres of the pods of the 
string beans and the skins and cellulose of the dry 
ones. 

S])lit peas have the skins removed and thus are 
more* readily digested. The skins of the larger beans 
ma}^ be rubbed off after soaking* and parboiling. 

Hard water retards the cooking- of beans and a bit 
of soda is often added to soften the water and loosen 



268 



VEGETABLES, 



89 



the skin — thi^ water is poured off wiien the beans are 
partly cooked. 

Few people use the variety of beans they might, as 
the black beans for soup, the limas or red kidney 
for stewed beans, the pea bean and yellow eye for 
baking and the French tiageolets for salads. 

Potatoes are generally liked because of their lack 
of pronounced flavor, and for the same reason, may 
be combined with many other foods. 

A peck of potatoes may cost from fifteen to seventy- 
five cents, according to the season of the year, and the 
abundance of the crop. This quantity will weigh fif- 
teen pounds and will average from fifty to sixty po- 
tatoes. That is, one pound will be about four pota- 
toes of medium size, and will cost from one to five 
cents. 

If pared before cooking and all bad places removed, 
average potatoes will lose from twenty to twenty-five 
per cent, or one of the four potatoes in a pound. From 
selected potatoes the government experts scraped the 
skins, removing as little flesh of the potato as possible. 
This was about eleven per cent of the weight. In po- 
tatoes as usually purchased, the green ends, decayed 
places, and the potatoes gashed wnth the hoe easily 
bring the total loss up to the higher percentage. 

It may be a profitable loss to pare old and inferior 
potatoes before cooking. The main point to notice in 
the cooking of the potato is to let out the steam, or to 



Beatiff 



Potatoes 



Loss in 
Preparing 



269 



90 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Potatoes 
with Meat 



Combinations 



Cooking 
Vegetables 



pour off the water as soon as the fibre and starch are 
softened. 

Because the potato is lacking in protein and fat, the 
instinct of man has taught him to eat it with meat, 
since it gave him the food principles the meat lacked, 
and also the bulk desirable for the process of diges- 
tion. 

The art of the cook has devised many methods of 
combining butter, oil, milk and eggs with the potato 
and other vegetables tO' supply protein and fat. The 
fried potato absorbs fat while cooking ; the white sauce 
of creamed potato adds both fat and protein ; a potato 
soup is creamed potato with more milk ; the potato 
croquette contains Qgg and is cooked in fat; a potato 
salad has oil and often eggs. 

Such additions, though increasing the cost of the 
food, make the result equivalent to vegetables with a 
moderate allowance of meat. Hence vegetable souf- 
fiees, or croquettes, may be served when the meat sup- 
ply is limited. 

Almost any vegetable, by due combination with 
milk, butter, and eggs may appear as soup, fritters, 
croquettes, soufflees, or salads. For these complicated 
dishes, it is essential that the vegetable first shall be 
perfectly cooked in a simple fashion. 

The methods of cookery applied to vegetables are 
similar to those used for meat, but must be adapted 
to the composition and condition of the individual 
specimen. 



270 



VEGETABLES. 91 

It is impossible to give the exact time for cooking 
any variety of vegetable, for every sample will differ. 
They are unpalatable when underdone and also at the 
other extreme. 

There is usually some way of cooking best for each 
vegetable, but if one kind only is available it is neces- 
sary to serve it in a variety of ways. This, perhaps, 
explains why the average cook book gives more re- 
ceipes for the potato than for all other vegetables. 
Suitable utensils are essential ; vegetables should not 
be cooked in iron kettles when others are attainable; 
strainers, mashers, cutters, ricers and presses are de- 
sirable. 

Strong flavors frequently are due to careless prep- 
aration. Careful trimming and thorough washing are 
essential. Wilted vegetables are improved, as has been 
said, by soaking. Salad plants need especial care in 
washing to remove parasites and insecticides. 

Any portion of a root or tiiber grown above ground 
becomes green and strong flavored and will impart 
its flavor to other jx^rtions with which it may be 
cooked. A decayed bit, or the scorching where the 
water evaporates, may often ruin the flavor of all. 

Young, tender, well flavored vegetables should be 
cooked and served in the simplest manner. Inferior 
specimens, like tough asparagus or celery which has 
lost its crispness, by boiling, straining, and flavoring 
may be made into palatable soup when they would be 
worthless under simple treatment. 



Preparation 



271 



Vegetable 
Soups 



92 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Vcn^ctable soups arc of two types ; — for one, the 
vci;x'tal)lcs arc cooked till tender, cnt in convenient 
bits and added to a meat stock, lu^r the other, l)y loni^ 
cookin*;- in water a sin<;"le vci^etahU' or several to^-ether 
are made into stock, and all that is soft enoui^h is 
rubbed through a strainer and then ])nt with about an 
equal quantity, according to the strength of each, of 




7 »4 



TdMA'ro JioLiA WTi'ii i'.i;i:ts. 



Preparation 

and 

Digestibility 



meat stock or thin white sauce. Thick, pulpy stock, 
like that from peas, beans, or potatoes, needs a much 
thinner sauce than would celery or asparagus. Un- 
less some thickening of flour is used, the solider por- 
tions will settle, leaving the sou]) watery on top. 

In one of the publications of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture the difference in digestibility 
of the same food cooked in various ways is thus stated : 
Whole peas soaked and cooked, 60 per cent digested ; 



272 



VEGETABLES. 



93 



peas cooked a long time and strained, 82.5 per cent ; 
pea flour cooked with milk, butter and eggs, 92 per 
cent. This would seem to prove that the portion of 
vegetable food considered undigestible can be reduced 
by right methods of cooking. 

Mashing is a form of preparation suited to squash, 
turnip, parsnip, and potatoes. A seasoning of cream, 



Mashing 




INDIVIDUAL APPLE AND CELERY SALAD. 

or butter, and salt and pepper, is usually added. Frit- 
ters and croquettes usually have mashed vegetables 
as their foundation, or small bits are mixed with a 
thick cr^am sauce. 

The white sauce is a useful additon to vegetables 
since it increases- their nutritive value and modifies 
strong flavors. Almost any cooked vegetables may 
thus be "creamed" or "scalloped" by adding both the 
sauce and buttered crumbs and baking. This- is an ex- 
cellent way to reheat something left from a previous 
day. 



Creamed 
Vegetable! 



273 



94 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Salads 



Salad is a term belonging especially to a class of 
iinc(X)ked vegetables and in all cases implies a vegeta- 
ble foundation tliough meats or fish may be added. 
The dressing of oil and vinegar is likewise of vegeta- 
ble origin. 

Here is another of our attempts to bring together 
the five food principles in a single compound. Water 
and mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate are 
usually blended in fairly balanced proportions. This is 
especially true of salads containing eggs, fish, or meat 
and eaten with bread. 



Addition 
of Water 



GRAINS 

The grains or cereals are the main dependence of the 
human race for food and have been known from very 
early times. Some "member of this family of j>lants 
is found in every section of the world. Rice, wheat 
and corn are most largely used as food, while oats, rye, 
barley, and millet follow closely. Animals can eat these 
grains or grasses as they grow. For the human stom- 
ach the coarser portions must be removed. All are 
similar in composition, being from two-thirds to three- 
fourths starch. The protein ranges from 7 to 15 i)cr 
cent; fat varies from i to 10 per cent; there is about 
I per cent mineral matter and 10 to 12 ])er cent of 
water. 

Before we can cat and digest such foods a large 
amount of water must be combined with them. Analy- 
ses have*shown that the percentage of water in mushes. 



274 



GRAINS. 95 

boiled rice, macaroni, and mashed potato is nearly the 
same. 

When we buy cereals in paper packages we pay a 
little more for them than when they are bought in 
bulk, but that is a convenient, clean form in which to 
keep them. All cereals should be looked over before 
cooking since they are liable to attacks from insects. 




A Cup of Corn Meal, and the Amount of Mush It Will Make. 



To' make mushes start with the desired proportion of 
liquid, as that regulates the final amount. If too much 
water' is used it can seldom be drained off, as it might 
be from potatoes, and if there is too little at the begin- 
ning it is practically impossible to add more without 
making the mush lumpy and pasty. A double boiler, 
a dish set in a steamer or a covered pail in a kettle of 
water, are the utensils suitable for cooking mushes. 



Musne 



275 



96 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

Cooking ' '^^ coarser the ^rain, the more water required, and 

Cereals j^|^g longcT will ])v the time of eookin^^ Whole f;rains 
are improved by soalvinj;' in cold water, finely ground 
preparations must be mixed with cold water to pre- 
vent the formation of lumps. All others should be put 
into boiling water. Add one teaspoonful of salt to each 
quart of water. Ordinary oatmeal and granulated 
wheat need four times their bulk of water, cracked 
wheat and hominy recjuirc more. The rolled grains re- 
quire but twice their bulk of water. 

The cooking at first should be rapid and the upper 
part of the double boiler should be placed directly on 
the stove for five minutes. Then put it over the other 
part, cook closely covered and do not stir. Such foods 
are not injured by cooking for a longer time than the 
usual directions allow. Coarse hominy, oatmeal, or 
cracked wheat for breakfast should be cooked several 
hours the previous day. 

Rice may ])e l)oile(l in a quantity of water which is 
afterwards drained off, but this is wasteful unless some 
use is made of the liquid. 

Macaroni and tapioca are not strictly cereals but con- 
form to the same rules of cookings 

Most nnishes or cooked cereals may be moulded and 
served cold for variety, especially in warm weather, or 
be packed smoothly in oblong ])ans or round tin boxes 
and when cold sliced and fried to serve with syrups or 
to eat with meats. 



&ioe 



Tried 
Mush 



276 



GRAINS. 97 

A portion of cooked cereal may be added Jto the 
liquid used in mixing muffins. 

Manufacturers of the present day seem to be trying 
to see in how many different forms they can prepare 
the few standard grains ; they are left whole, are 
cracked, are crushed into flakes, or broken into gran- 
ules. As the result of this variety of preparations' and 




Cereals shaped iu I'uiiey Muulds. 

the generous way in which they are advertised cereals 
are used more and more. 

During the last few years they have been cooked in 
the factories and prepared in forms ready for immedi- to Eat- 

/ CereaU 

ate use. These forms have many merits though not 
all that are claimed for them. In some respects they 
resemble the primitive forms of unleavened bread 
which were the first attempts among all races, the 
bannock, the hoe cake, the tortilla/ 



277 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

VAliT II. 



Ri'.\d C.iri'fully. IMiicc ^-oiir name aii<l a(l<li{\ss on th.'. 
lirst slut-'t 1)1 (lu'tist. Use a lij^ljl j^radt'ol |)a|)oi' and writ': 
DH i)iu' side 1)1' the slu*o< only. J)(> hd/ <(>/>y ansicirs front flir 
frsson paprr. Use your own words, so that (lir instriu*tor 
iiiay know that yoii iiiukMsland tin* sid)jfit. IVca*! the les- 
son j>api'i' a nuinlx-i' of 1 iiiK's J)«'rorc a I Iciiipl iiij- toanswiT' 
the ijucst ions, 

1. Ill \\li;il \\;i\s lire ojU'^'S iist'(l in cnokcrN ? 

2. \\ li;il siil»st;ini('s ww ii.il ur.illy i-oiuhinrd with 

c'j^j^s ;iii(l milk, .iiid w li\' ? 
^^. W Ii;il is llic I niiihinit iiLiI prinriplc in rookini;' arli- 
I'lrs (■< iiil;iiniiiL; ;i liU'L^^' |)r(i|)( ill it )n ol f.^i; ? 

4, Mi'iil it 111 li\(' tlislu's wlu'iT t'L^L; is :iii I'ssi'iilial in 

l;i odiciil , ;iiitl li\r tillu is wlii'ii' it iiia\ he iisi'tl 
or < niiil Irtl. I'Npkiin \\\\\ .. 

5. II \\i' IiikI il lUTi's.sai \ ttt ifdiuc tile iiiiiiihrr t)l 

i'i;l;s ill a lakc m tiistaitj, \\li;il tiliici tliaiiL;i.'s 

w t nilti lif lUHH'Ssai'N' ? 
(). Make a t w t » tla\s' iiiciiii Itir llu' scastui wlii'ii c'i;i;s 
:\vc a! Ilic lt)\vt'sl. i»rif(\ ami Iwo days' iiumm: 
lor I lie season wlicii llicy aii' expiMisivc. 

7. W Iiuli Ituiiis *il animal Itituj .uf llu' mtisl t.'\- 

pi'iisixr ami win ? 

W liitli nittsi ccoiit miii'al ami why? 

8, W lial poi lions t»|" iiumI arc hosl ft)r stuip slock? 

W'lial slitmltl 1)1' disrardcti? I )i'srril)(' lIic pror 
I'ss tij makiiiL; soiip. lias llic i'\l 1 ai'lctl meal 
imtiiti\i' \alik-? 



Z78 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 

9. Why is loss fat absorbed Ijy food in frying- in 

dfcj) f.il lli.in in sanlcrinj^-? 
10. iWvv niclliods of preparing- ton^Ii meal so lliat il 

is palatable and nnlrilions. 
il. Give the names of sonps vvliieli have (a) link-, 

(b) much, and (c) j^reat nutritive value. 
12. Why do we add stuffing- and sauce to meats and 

fish ? 

W What is (he ^-reatest obstacle to be (overcome in 
cooking- ve^^'tables? 

14. Give methods for cooking" fish. What is ilu 

j)rnper a|)p('arance of a fresh fish? 

15. I'laii a rolali(Hi of different cereals for five break- 

iasts in winter and five in summer, j^ivin^- rea- 
sons for your choice. 

16. tlovv may dillcrenl in.tliod.s ,,f picpaiiii^- a vcff^ 

ctable chan^^e its nutritive value? 

17. Describe your own method of roastinj^- meat. 

18. Give the names of the vegetables and grains used 

in your household. Name some that are not 
used. 

"^- '^ "'•''■^- •'">■ (pieslion you wish (o ask or subject 
you wouM hkc to discuss relating- to this les- 
son ? 

Nom— After c-oMiplcliiiK the lest, sign y.nir full n.„ne. 



279 




'A 

o 

H 

o 
u 
w 

Q 
(/J 

H 

i/i 

I— t 

(^ 

d 

s 

Q 

(X, 

Q 

IS 

<: 

H 



180 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

PART III 



BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS 

Having considered the whole grains wc must learn 
how to use them when ground into flour. Although Mixing 
some lorms ot bread like hoe cake and tortillas can be 
made from cracked grain without making it into a 
flour, most people depend upon flour for a large part of 
their dai-ly food. 

In the best cook books the ingredients are mentioned 
in the order in which they are to be put together to 
secure the best results and to save dishes ; the dry cups 
and spoons are used for the flour and spices, then for 
the shortening and liquids. The flour is sifted before 
measuring and sifted again to mix the other materials 
with it. 

There is such variation in flours that it is impossible General 
to give exact recipes for doughs, but it is easy to learn fr[*Dou*'hs' 
certain general proportions and experience must teach 
the rest. A simple formula will be helpful in inter- 
preting old recipes in which the exac* quantities of 
flour or li(|uid are not stated, or in analyzing recipes to 
decide whether they are doughs or batters. 

One measure of flour to one of liquid makes a bat- 
ter. 

Two measures of flour to one of liquid gives the 
urual muffln mixture. 



281 



100 



l'h'lX( 7/7 /•:, Oh ( OoKhh'V 



MhUIiih: 



/nnul 



'llltcc lll<';iMII (". (i| llnlll III nlir ii| ||(|l||i| |||,-|k(*S .'I 
Mill )|()ll|'ll, lull (illi lli;il |||:i\ |)c kill, |< led. 

I'"lll IIK'.IMIIC', III ||<i||| In (ijic (il ||i|li|(| r, llic llMl.iJ 
I'l < '|tM| t H 111 |m| (Idiij'li', |(> lir litjjcil IJiiii like |»;i',li\' ( ij" 
( ( i( ik ICS. 

IklMris .iihI iiiiiIIiii', ( ;iii lie '.lined Willi ;i S'pooil. 
I >« Hii'li', .lie iiii\((| iimic I III i| I iil}_;lil\ .iiid cimIn witii a 
km Ic. 

Mt'iijdi', aic made Iiidil heeaii'.e lliiis llie\ are iii«>re 
I Mi.il.ihle .Hid I li.!',i " I ilik'. 

I lie aliiiM',1 eii(|less variel\' of hieads, cake, jiihI pas- 
li\ iii.i\ lie ( ki'.'.ilied aecnrdiiir, !'• Mic iiH'aiis nse(I In 
mai.e llieiii li;'.lil. N easl lia'. Iieeii known In llie liiiniaii 
ia((' llnlll a \'v\\ v\\\\\ peiincl, IJie nllnas are imu ii 
l.ih I iii\('iilinns. 

I lie jti iiH iji.il means are liiesc : 

Ilie iiie( liaiiii ;il nil ind I K t H Ml n| ail", as 1)\' healiiis.; 
or l>\ llie adtjilinii n| c^^s ni l»\ llie h'Idiii!; nf |)asl!\', 
or in I lie act ;iled < >r I >atli',lilisli In ead. 

I Ik 11'. e (d NcasI, liic f'jnulli td a |tlanl lilliiii.; lIic 
dniiidi Willi i;as. 

llie (Ileum al < i iiiilun.il mn <d a hi raikoiiale ol soda, 
w illi St Miie a( id Milr.l.mec. 

km jti.KlK.i! ir.e in e\'er\ d.i\ lile il is t'ssenlial 

ti. ieiiieiiil»t I Mi.il \ea'.l llHr.l Ite he. lied like nliier Inlins 
nl plant llie .imj il wf w.iiil il In i',i"V\. vn'' mii'-l piti 
vide llie liidil kind nl m.iI, Millieieiil nini',lmc, and Miil 
aide leinpei .»l in e. Altei ils wnik is dniie, llie vilalilv 
(d llie \easl niiisi l)e deslro\cd l)\ Ileal. 



ith'i.in. lot 

ll ni.iN l)c (If'.ii ;il)lc lo ljiM\\ ||(i\v l() iii.iiilll.u I iiir ^ ■ 
N'c.'isl ;il linmc .111(1 liiiw In iilili/r llic (liicd \cas( O.'ikl'S *'"'""* 
ill ciJicijMiK its, llnuii'li (•( iiii|>r( sst'd \(;isl ciikcs ;irc now 
so ^viK r;ill\ 11. ('<l lli.il il i'. liiinlK iicccs'.'ii'n'. A r<)iii- 
prcssc'd yc.'isl. rake .'.iKMiId Itc liiiii and solid, not soil 
and |>asl\ ; il siioiiJd jool, ,( inn! Imi}; like Insli clircsc, 
iiol d.irk (■o|oi<(| ;nid ino|d\. W'lirn onl\ |>iiil (d a 




IIMI'il'IIL II'I'IONIIII.H. 

yeast cake is lo l»c ii', cd, il slionld lie ( nl off ';r|iiairlv 
and llic rcni.'nndci wt'a|)|M'd sinoo||il\' in Ini lod :it',nn, 
vvlicii ll may li<" kcpl.a few days loiij;ci. 

liWI'AI) 

llic (•'.'. cull. d iii;;!c(|i(iil'. in Im.id ni.il.iiif; aK-yrasl, 
li(|iiid. .Mid IJoin ; llic |iio|iorl ioii'. iii.in he varied ac- 
( ( ll dim; lo (•( iiidin HIS. 

Sll^ar .and slioilcnini; ;iic coiiimonl\' ii'.cd, knl if 
llicy U'cic oinillcd \\lio||\' il would l>c |)o,',i|i|c lo li,i\c 
pakalalik , nnhilioii', liicnk S.all is ('sscnri.al lo snil llic 
t.asic o| nio',l |)ci',oir., kill ;r; krc.id is nsii.allv coniliiiicd 



2h:j 



102 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Causes of 
Slow Rising 



Kinds of 
Flour 



with salted butter its absence would be less noticeable, 
and bread might be made without it. Fermentation is 
hindered by the presence of salt, a small amount of 
sugar hastens the process. 

Sugar in large quantities makes the dough dense and 
the yeast cannot expand so readily. An excess of short- 
ening has much the same effect. If a dough is made 
stiff with flour it rises more slowly. A stiff dough 
usually has small air cells and is finer grained than 
when the dough is made softer. 

The liquid may be milk, whole or skimmed, or water, 
or half of each. The milk supplies some sugar, fat and 
nitrogenous matter and produces -a more nourishing 
loaf than that which is made with water. Mashed po- 
tatoes or sifted squash or cooked cereals are some- 
times added to a bread dough for variety, but the proc- 
ess is not changed by such additions. 

The best bread flour is made from spring wheat and 
pastry flour from winter wheat, though they may be 
used interchangeably if necessary. The spring wheat 
flour contains more gluten and less starch, so that less 
of the bread flour is required to produce a dough of a 
given consistency. 

The entire or w^hole wheat flours provide more bone 
making materials than white flour, otherwise there is 
little difference in the nutritive value of the better 
grades of each. 

The presence of gluten makes wheat the favorite 
flour for yeast dough. Gluten is adhesive when moist- 



284 



BREAD. 



103 



ened and thus retains the gas' bubbles formed by the 
yeast in somewhat the same way that egg-whites hold 
air when they are beaten. 

Old recipes for mixing yeast bread usually give di- 
rections for rubbing shortening into the flour and then 



Order of 
Mixing 




"BREAD CAKE" OR BUN BREAD. 



adding the other ingredients with liquid to make a 
dough that can be kneaded. The best authorities to- 
day reverse the order, thus saving time and energy and 
producing a better result. 

The liquid is warmed that the fat, sugar, and salt 
may readily blend with the other ingredients and that 
the dough may rise more rapidly. When it is below 
100 F, or cool enough to avoid cooking the yeast, that 



Liquid 
Warmed 



285 



104 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY, 



Double 

Process 

Sread 



Amount 
ot "icasi, 



Short 
Process 



is added and well mixed through the li(juid. Sufficient 
flour then is mixed in to give the desired consistency 
for kneading. 

At first the mixture may be stirred with a spoon, but 
as it becomes stiifer a knife will more easily serve to 
produce a smooth dough. 

The process of mixing bread may illustrate the bat- 
ter and drop batter or muffin mixture as well as the 
dough. To make a sponge, half the quantity of Hour to 
be used is mixed with the liquid and this allowed to 
rise till foamy, when the remainder of the flour is add- 
ed. The advantages of this double process are that a 
trifle less flour is required since the first has time to 
expand before the second is put in, and that the process 
is somewhat shortened because in the first stage there 
is less resistance for the yeast to overcome and the 
whole sponge becomes full of yeast for the second 
stage. 

Sometimes it is more convenient to use a small ])or- 
tion of yeast and allow the dough to rise for a longer 
time, and again to use more yeast and thus do the work 
more quickly. Until the scientists decide which is real- 
ly the better method, the housekee]:)er \\W\ find it de- 
sirable to vary the quantity of yeast according to her 
conditions. Time, temperature, and quantity of yeast 
must be considered, — if one must be diminished, the 
others should be increased. 

For common use. a short process is to be preferred 
to the old custom of letting the dough rise over night. 



286 



BREAD. 



105 



When it rises by day we can regulate the temperature 
and stop the process at the right time. One yeast cake 
to one pint of Hquid and about three pints of flour, will 
make two medium-sized loaves of bread, which can be 
completed inside of six hours. 




BREAD MAKING MACHINE. 



When necessary, a dough well risen and ready to 
shape may be cut down and put in a refrigerator or 
other cold place and thus held in check for several 
• hours without injury. Sometimes half the bread may 
be shaped in a loaf and the remainder in rolls and the 
pans containing the latter set away in a cool place for 
several hours before baking that they may be hot for a 
later meal. 

When first mixed, dough is kneaded just enough to 
blend all ingredients, then it is put back in the bowl. 



Holding- 
Dough 
in Check 



Kising 



287 



io6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

brushed over with water or with melted fat and cov- 
ered while it is rising. Snch precautions aid in pre- 
venting the formation of a dry crust caused by the 
evaporation of the water on the surface during the 
process of rising. The bowl containing the dough 
may be set in a pan of warm water which is changed 
often enough to keep the temperature even. When the 
dough must stand over night in a cool kitchen, tlic 
bowl may be wrapped in a blanket to prevent the es- 
cape of heat. 
Kneading Mucli time IS doubtlcss wasted in kneading doughs, 

though it seems to be agreed that this process works 
all ingredients together and thus give a better texture 
to the bread. To knead work the edges of the dough 
little by little toward the center, pull it over, press 
down into the mass and press it away with one hand 
wdiile turning the whole around with the other. When 
the dough is smooth, elastic, and rises quickly when 
pressed and docs not stick to the hand then it is done. 

After the dough is double in bulk it should be 
kneaded enough to redistribute the air bubbles which 
have run together and formed larger ones, and to 
shape it for baking. At this stage no flour should be 
added, for here much time would be required to work 
in a little flour, and that is why long kneading has 
been thought necessary. Di]) the fingers in soft fat if 
the dough inclines to stick, as one would do when pull- 
ing candy. 
Shaping To shape biscuits or rolls, first make smooth round 



288 



BRIiAl). 



107 



balls, llicn by liciilk- rolling and prcssiirt" make llic lin- 
jL^rr rolls — tluMi fartlu'r extend (ill tlie slrij)s ran he 
twisle(l or K'fl as sticks for sonp. 'Ilins one lorni may 
be developed from another. 

When rolls are to be ent ont and folded, the pressnre 
of the rollini;' ])in will ecpialize the air bnbbles witbotit 
previous kneadiniL;'. Instead of makini;' the donmli for 
rolls rieli vvilb bntter or lard, it is wiser to brnsli over 
tlie ontside of the rolls with melte<l fat when tliey are 
pnt in (lie pan. 




IMINS— Sia'yXUATK ANM IN I.OAK. 

A^ain tlie donmb innst be allowed to double in bulk 
md then it is ready to l)ake. 

To smnmari/.e the points alreadv covered. — Tlie time 
required depends upon the (|uantil\' of yeast used, and 
tbe lemj)eralure at wliieli tlie <IonL;li is kepi. ( )iie 
measure of li(|nid to three of Hour is the usual propor 
.tion. h'or fanc\' brt-ads make a spouj^e lirst, and let 
the mixlure rise three times. 1 .ar_i;e (piantities of sn^ar 
and butter tend to retard the i^rowtb of the yeast plant. 
For bread add all the Hour at once. Small shapes- are 



SiMllIUI, 



289 



ic8 



PRINCirLES OF COOKERY. 



Baking 
«f Bread 



Cooking Soda 
with Acids 



preferable to large ones, as thus more thorough cook- 
ing is insured. 

The baking of bread is not easily disposed of in a 
few words. Yeast doughs having risen before being 
put in the oven will bear rather a higher degree of heat 
at first than other doughs. A more moderate oven 
is requiretl for loaves than for rolls that the heat 
may penetrate cvenl}', but the loaf nuist remain a suf- 
ficient time to raise the center to a degree of heat that 
will insure the destruction of the yeast. A moderate 
temperature might allow the dough to continue rising 
and even to sour from the growth of bacteria when in 
the oven. 

When thoroughly baked, a loaf of bread will seem 
light and hollow and no steam will come from it to 
burn the hand as it is turned from the pan. 

The usual temperature for baking bread is about 
400° F, though a good result may be reached by a 
more moderate heat continued for a longer time. 

E.vpcriiiioif. Three or four glass tubes or common 
tumblers are all the apparatus needed for some prac- 
tical experiments which will make the use of these leav- 
ening agents much clearer than does the ordinary cook- 
book. Dissolve some soda in half a tumbler of water ; 
in another tumbler dissolve some cream of tartar, in 
a third have a little molasses ; in a fourth place some 
sour milk, and in a fifth some vinegar. 

Now ])Ut a part of the soda water into each of the 
Other glasses, stir well, -and watch the result. Leave 



290 



BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS, 109 

these till later to see how soon the gas escapes and 
that it cannot be revived. By tasting soda and cream 
of tartar we shall see that it is desirable to combine 
them in such proportions that each may neutralize the 
other. This is done in baking powders. 

In another glass dissolve some baking powder, first 
in cold and then in warm water to show that the gas 
escapes more rapidly at a high temperature. 




CORN BREAD. 



These experiments show us why we should sift 
cream of tartar and soda or baking powder with the 
flour instead of dissolving it in liquid. The gas which 
is to make the dough light begins to escape from the 
soda when it comes in contact with an acid liquid. 

Some baking powder manufacturers try to convince 
us that their product is so perfect that it is useless for 
the housekeeper to continue to keep soda and cream of 
tartar in her store closet. But much as we owe to their 
perfect methods- of grinding and sifting and combining 



Soda and 
Cream o.<: 
Tartar 



291 



no PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

these substances in the right proportions, there are 
times when we must use them separately. 

Angel cake, for example, requires the addition of 
cream of tartar to stiffen the egg-white which is its 
foundation. This aids in holding up the spongy mass 
until it is made hrm by heat. In any case where there 
is a large proportion of egg-white a slight excess of 
cream of tartar is desirable. 
Molasses That molasscs is acid in spite of its sweetness is evi- 

and Soda . . ,.^ 

dent by testmg it with a bit oi soda, l^or this reason 
soda is added to molasses candy since if it is filled with 
air bubbles it will be more brittle. The acidity varies 
in different grades of molasses, and modern methods 
of manufacture and quick transportation give us a less 
acid product than that of the past. This explains why 
many of the recipes of our great-grandmothers called 
for such large quantities of soda in gingerbread, etc. 
In such recipes it is usually wise to reduce the quantity 
of soda and use a small amount of baking powder. 
JJrown bread and all cakes and puddings containing 
molasses, because of its acidity, are usually more pal- 
atable if some soda is used to make them light instead 
of baking powder only. 

Butter contains so much buttermilk that, unless it is 
washed before using, a bit of soda is essential for all 
rich cakes and cookies which are to be kept for any 
length of time. 

Sour Milk Because of the tendency to use an excess of soda 

and Soda ^^j^|^ -^^ ^l^^ ^^j,^, ^j g^^^^ ^^^-jl^ l^^g \)QQ\\ Condemned. But 



292 



BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. in 

thick, sour milk is- not very variable in acidity, and the 
use of one even teaspoonful of soda with each pint of 
sour milk is safe. Soda is inexpensive and sour milk 
is also, while cream of tartar and baking powder are 
costly. One half level teaspoon of soda is usually 
enough when one cup of molasses is used, as- it is with 
one cup of sour milk. When it is more convenient to 




BOSTON BROWN BREAD. 

substitute sweet milk for sour, we retain the soda and 
add one slightly rounding teaspoonful of cream of tar- 
tar. 

Baking powder contains some starch, but two or strength of 
three level teaspoonfuls of baking powder are equal in powder 
effect to one rounding teaspoonful of cream of tartar 
and the half level teaspoonful of soda. 

Just why some good old recipes recommend dissolv- 
ing soda in hot water before adding it to the other 
ingredients, or mixing it w^ith hot molasses, is uncer- 
tain. Perhaps the housewives wanted to "see with 



293 



112 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

their eyes" that action would result. Or the habit 
might have been the result of the impure quality of 
the alkaline substance. The "pearl ash," as saleratus 
was called, was not as finely pulverized as is the soda of 
today, and may not have been as thoroughly purified 
from other ash. Hot water would dissolve it quickly, 
any impurities would settle, and even if some gas es- 
caped enough was left to do the work of puf^ng up 
the dough. 

Mixing Such small quaniities relatively of soda, cream of 

Powder tartar, and baking powder are used in a dough that it 

has been a question how they should be mixed with 

the other ingredients to secure the most perfect result. 

The dough should be light throughout, not here a solid 

streak, and there large bubbles. 

Some teachers of cookery have recommended sifting 
the one or two teaspoon fuls of baking powder over a 
cake after it was mixed and beating thoroughly just 
before pouring into the pan in which it is to be baked. 
But as soon as the powder comes in contact with the 
moist surface of the dough some gas will be lost, and 
moreover, it is doubtful whether two teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder can be evenly mixed through a quart 
of cake batter without much beating which does not 
improve the quality of the cake at that stage and de- 
lays the baking. 

The accepted plan at present is to sift with the flour 
the baking powder or cream of tartar and soda or the 



294 



BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 



113 



soda alone when it is to be used with some sour milk 
or molasses. 

The sooner the process is completed after the acid 
and soda meet each other the better. Therefore we 
keep all the materials dry until the last moment, then 
mix quickly and bake at once. 

Similar recipes are found in all cook books, and once 
the general proportions and the office of each ingre- 




General 
Directions 



RYE MUFFINS. 

dient are learned, it is easy to make many variations. 
The process of mixing is practically the same in all 
cases. Prepare the fire and dishes for cooking, be- 
fore mixing any of the ingredients measure every- 
thing, sift all dry materials together, add liquids, mix 
all thoroughly, and cook immediately. 

Qianges in the proportions of materials' often lead 
to a change in the manner of mixing them. For ex- 
ample, when a small quantity of shortening is used in 
batters, it may be meked and beaten in, but if a large 



Manner 
of Mixing' 



295 



114 I'ls'lNCII'l.r.S or COOKh.KV. 

l»l"|"'l I Kill r. lr(|II|l((|, il sliullld l)r Illl»|)((| |||| crc'iiiiv 

.iikI l»l<ii«lr(| Willi ihc sn^.ir ;is (nr cake, or mixed into 
III'' ll'iiir ;i'. III |»;i',lr\ iii;ikiii<;. I'nr sliU doiiidis vvliicli 
;il<' I" l»<' Killed, il is cssc'iili.il lli;il the l;il siioiild \)v 
j'lil III (did MiKc even ;i siii;ill (|ii;iiilil V, if vv.'inn, will 
l<iid In iij.ij.e llie doijeji .soil ;i i id ' si ick v. Wc J^rcaSf 
'giioiionjiiK' |i.iir., I'liddles, elc, hccanse l;it |»reveiils adiu'sinn ; in 
IIh' s.iiiie \\;i\' l;il ill a doii;di Jceps llie |i;irli(les sej)a- 
lale and ni.ikes il lucak ;i|i;iil icidilw so lli.il we c'lll 
il "slloll" ol" "lender." I lelice si lo| I ei li ii<' is ;iliv form 

of l,il lli.il will .i< ( niii|)|isli siieli a rcsiill. '|\>i'jv(' like 
rcsiill ., iijoie :,|ioi leiiiiii; is i-e(|nire(! willi i)i<';id llonr 
lii);li III idiileii lliaii Willi |»a'.lrv llom- low in idiileii. 

I\j4i;s in <loii<dis, as in oilier cases, have ihr (pialily 
<>l inakini; pailieles hold lo;'(l|ier, jiisl llie ifvcisc of 
shorleiiiii!;. Aii\' doiiidi coiiliiiiiin;' hhk h ej-i; will he 
<kr.lie and s|ioiim\', and il cooked loo (|iii(kl\' will he 
h>n<4li. I )oiiidis lo he inaile i ieli wilh hiiller, like 
pound eak<'. nia\' he saved fidiii heaviness hv (he use 
of e^^f;s. 

PASTRY AND CAKE 

Shofleake and |iaslr\' aie illirl lal ions (d ihe ii'^e of 
iiiiK II t.il 111 tloiiidis and I he i e .nil is hiil I le and lender. 
Sueei'SS in pasli'N' iii,ii in:; iIcjk nd'. more ii|)(iii keepinj^r 
llie iimredieiil', «ol.| and haiidliiii; llie doiiidi deflly 
lliaii aii\ 'pet lal liiimiil.i (H ordei' o| mixiiiL;'. Wdien 
fiul a small aiix iiml ( >| ',lioi liiiiiii; is used, a small (pian 
lil\ oj h.il.iii;; powdcf is lielpjiil; this, (d eoiil'se, is 
omilled III pull |)aslr\, in which Ihe weights <d (he 



2()r) 



/'./,', / A') ,/,\7' ( '.IK I:. 



115 



fintii ,ii)(| hillhr .'ire ('(jit.il, .111(1 ll I;. ||(i| (..nciiI i;i I m 

ollici- casrs. 

I'cw <li>ni;lis i((|iiiic .1 sni.illci iiiiiiiln r a^ iiij-j rdicnis Paitry 
lli.'iii |>,'islr\'; llniir, s;ill, slmi Icmhim, .md IkjukI .iir ilic 
cssciili.'ils. ;iii<l .lii i'. iiK < ti |M )i ,il((I III I lie I •! M( (•',•, (i| nil V 
inj^''. VVllcii llic lloiii ;iii<I 'JKMlriiiiiL; .lie \v;iliii llir\' 
stick loj^x'llicr so lli.il I'ss ;iir is mixed inin (lie dniijdi. 




Ai'PMO I'lr; IN i»i:i.i- n,,\i 1; 
'I'Ih' |)I(K(',s (.1 h.lliii'' ;iiid loldiiic IS ;i device I'm ( ;il( li- 



iii}^ iiMHc air in llie dnti^li, Tliis aif, vvIk n Ik al(( 
patids and (>iiir. Ilic hiveis aparl. 'Ilic ( nldd (I 
niixe(| in llie ddiifdi llic i-icah r il', (•v|);iir.i. .11 in l»; 
In caki'-iiiaisini^' a sinj^de, vvdl |»im|.(.i lidurd \,,\ 
may !)<• made lli<- basis Inr a l-jciI iiiiiiiIki nl' vari 
Tlierelnic. il is essenli.il llial llie I niKlainciil.d |)iiii<i 
|)Us he nndiTstood, iIkii llic vaiialinns (an lie ,i(((.iii- 
plishcd easily. 



. ex - 
c air 

Illl.l (;„i,„ 



les. 



Mn 1(1 III; 



297 




116 



298 



CAKE. 



117 



Tlie ])rinciplcs underlying;- si)on!L^c cake were ex- 
plained in the section on e^i^s. The main points in 
such cakes, which contain no Ijutter and are made li<;ht 
by eggs only, are to mix carefully that sufficient air 
may be entangled in the dough to make it li^ht, and 
then to bake slowly but thoroughly. 

The shape in which cake is to be baked should de- 
cide the proportion of Hour to be used. Layer cakes or 
small cakes require less flour than large loaves. This i^ 
probably because the small cake is stiffened more 
quickly by the heat, while the large mass must be 
stiffened with flour to hold up the air cells until the 
heat can penetrate the whole. Variations in cake are 
easily obtained through changes in flavoring ingredi- 
ents. To mix chocolate in the cake melt it and* mix 
with the sugar and l)Utter. Such a cake might have a 
white frosting flavored with vanilla. 

A cake flavored with alm'ond may have a few shred- 
ded almonds sprinkled over the toj) just before the cake 
is put in the oven. Almond ])aste can be rubbed into 
the butter and sugar in making cookies ; it is rather 
rich and heavy for a cake. Desiccated cocoanut, 
chopped nuts, raisins, currants, dates, citron, candied 
orange and lemon ])eel, singly or in various- combina- 
tions, serve to give us many cakes from a single reci])e. 

The ingredients mentioned for jiastry are com- 
mon to all cakes as well, but further variety is gained 
by the addition of sweetening and seasoning. Air or 
gas- to make the cake light is obtained by the use of 



Sponge 
Cake 



Flavoring 



Ingredient. 



299 



iiM 



/'h'iN( in / ,v Oh ( ooKiin' 



Ih .ilni <}'j''. .Mill 111 ImI III!- |Mi\\(|( !•., cU'., ;is \v<II .r. hy 
i'KMIMIIl!' Iilllln .iihl Iti.iiliii' Mil Ml ||i|<-<| llli'l rdiciils. 

I Ik' '.Im •! Itiiiiii' |iii Mil, ( I.I',', III ill', ill', III. IV l»«- I. ml, 
(ll il'pili;.;, tiitl oil, iiilliili III , ImiIIi I, m i ir.iiii, ck li li.iv- 
liif; il'. <i\\ii ',11(1 I. il ( li. II .11 III I', In W Inn llic'.r ;irt' 
Known, ( < miiIhii.iIii III', .iml 'iilr.l il iil n nr, .nr |mi-,m|)Ic' t() 
:i<l.l|il .1 t;l\('ll loliiillLi |i> llir .i\ .iil.ililr 1 1 i.il el i;ils. 
,4vviini.,iii„B I iij. ,,11^,,. ,,| s\V(('|( iini^; I', liiiiili il III Ml!',.!! .iihl inn 

luSS'CN, lull lli( i|ii.inlil\ Id III' II', III III .1 (.ill '.iniiilil |>f: 




''''•»'*-.•., 



* ^ 



HI'ON(il'I (VUvl'J H'I'|i|'M:Ii U 1111 I'liKVM 

li'lniiij il .1 1 1 1 1', I 111'', 111 '.wcrl lilliii}', I'. Ii» \)r .nl«lc(| 
l.ih I. 

W Ikii \\c «iiiiMilri llic l(in;; Ir.l nl .s|ii("('s and rx- 
li.iil . .mil linil', .iinl mil'. .i\ .ni.iMf Ini '^cusoinni; llic 
t.iKf, W'' t .III •.(•(• Iiiiw il r, |>i I'.'.ililc III ni.ilsr ni.niN \a 

I It I It ', III I III' '..line I .ll'.f 
HoUtivo llicic I", .1 cell. nil ifl.ilivr i u i >i >i n I n in Id he |i illi i\\ ft! 

t'litpiil UollH ' ' 

'"'''»'»" III llir ll'.f III llii'.c iii^i (•(lltiil'. wliiili, iMUt- Ic.nncti, 



.iOO 



COOKING 01' no U (J I IS. 



119 



enable us to decide whether a rccii)c is rehable. In 
butter cakes there is usually less hulUr than su^ar, 
and less sugar than flour. When baking powder is 
used less is required than would be necessary for a 
dough where there are no eggs. Thus two even tea- 
spoonfuls of baking j)owder is enough for three cups 
of flour for a cake in which three or four eggs are use. 
Some cooks use from one to two teasix)ons of bak- 
ing- powder for each cuj) of Hour in all cases, forgetting- 
that the eggs alone would make a cake quite light. 
When there is an excess of baking powder, the cake is 
liable to be coarse grained and will dry quickly. 

Dutch apple cake and cottage pudding are similar to 
the common muffin mixture in the proportions of Hour, 
liquid, etc., but are made richer by mcreasing the quan- 
tity of fat and sugar. 

The ordinary doughnut mixture is not unlike a cot- 
tage pudding dough, with the addition of Hour to make 
it stiff enough to roll easily. Or it is similar to the 
quick biscuit dough with the addition of sugar, q^^, 
and spice. Because doughnuts are cooked in fat, less 
shortening is required than for most stiff doughs. 

Cooky doughs are more like pastry with the addi- 
tion of sugar, spice, and ^^^, and the same care should 
be given to keeping^ the dough cold in order to roll and 
cut it without adhering to the board. 

COOKING OF DOUGHS 
Doug^hs are steamed, baked in the oven, or on a g-rid- 
dle on top of the stove. Such mixtures of manv differ- 



Cottage 
Pudding 



Doughnuts 



Cookies 



301 



120 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



ent ingredients are more difficult to cook than the sepa- 
rate substances of which they are composed, though 
heat affects each ingredient in combination much as it 
does singly. Sugar carmelizes and this aids in pro- 
ducing a golden brown color in the crust of anything 




AN ACCURATE OVEN THERMOMETER. 
Punch a hole in a comnjon gas stove oven and insert thermometer, 
which will register to 600 degrees F, wrapped with asbestos and wire 
where it passes through the top. 



containing it 



Since it burns readily, cakes and cookies 
are more liable to be scorched than unsweetened 
doughs. Flour browns when exposed to dry heat. 

Eggs cook at a low temperature. Butter melts, 
hence doughs containing much must contain more flour 
than those that have little or none. 



302 



of the Oven 



COOKING OF DOUGHS. 121 

The heat applied should conform to the way in Heat 

which it affects the principal ingredients in any dough. ^^i^i^^ed 
Those containing many eggs need moderate heat, etc., 
etc. The size and shape of the article are also to be 
considered. In general, small thin portions require 
less time but will bear higher temperature than larger 
portions as with bread doughs. 

There are various tests for the heat of the oven. Temperature 
Oven thermometers are valuable aids, showing com- 
parative if not actual degree of heat. When a ther- 
mometer is inaccessible, a piece of white paper or a 
teaspoonful of flour if charred from a five minutes' 
stay in the oven indicate too great heat and other de- 
grees may be gauged accordingly. All parts of an 
oven are not equally hot and each housekeeper must 
study her own. 

The lower part of a gas oven is very hot because 
the full force of heat is below ; in the wood or coal 
range one side is usually hotter than the other because 
of the position of the firebox. 



303 



Variety 



FORM AND FLAVORS 

Thus far we have studied the fundamental princi- 
ples of cooking and have seen that some knowledge 
of the chemical composition of each food is necessary 
before we can secure the best result through the ap- 
plication of heat and moisture. But this is only the 
foundation of the art of cookery. 

The form in which our food is served may attract 
or repel, and the flavor may make it appetizing or the 
reverse. We .must depend mainly for sustenance upon 
a few kinds of meat, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and 
unless variety were secured in some way we should 
quickly tire of them. 

Through the ingenuity of cooks of all times and 
countries, so many combinations have been devised, by 
changes in flavor and form, that some of our common 
foods might appear in different guise every day in the 
year. 

The multiplicity of formulas in our cook-books, even 
when well classified, are puzzling to the beginner who 
has not learned tO' analyze each recipe and thus find the 
simple processes- of which it consists. 

What is generally termed ''fancy" or *1iigh-class" 
Cookery cookcry is merely the application of the simple proc- 
esses to costly foods or a further complicated prepara- 
tion to foods which have first been cooked as perfectly 
as possible, according to the principles- already out- 
lined. 

122 



'Fancy" 



304 



FORM. 



IX 



For example, if we have learned how to make a 
white sauce and how to cook meats and vegetables, we 
do not require separate detailed recipes for creamed 
chicken, creamed oysters, creamed potatoes, creamed 
cauliflower, or creamed" asparagus ; we only need to 
make the sauce a little thinner or thicker to offset the 



Creamet 
Dishes 




CREAMED FISH IN RAMEKINS. 

dry or watery nature of the article with which it is to 
be put and to vary the flavor slightly to adapt it to an- 
other material. 

Furthermore, any such creamed meat or vegetable 
may be served plain, or on toast, or in timbale cases, or 
combined with buttered crumbs, as a ''scallop," or by 
the addition of stiff tgg whites it becomes a ''souffle" 
when baked. When the sauce is made of double thick- 
ness, and combined with the meat or vegetable and 
chilled, the mass may be shaped into croquettes or cut- 



Variety 
in Serving 



305 



124 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Adaptation 



Principle 
of Contrast 



Made 
Dishes 



lets which are then coated with ^^g and crumbs and 
fried. 

Thus any intelHgent woman knowing something of 
the nature of foods and the effect of heat and moisture 
may to some extent make her Own recipes or adapt oth- 
ers to the supphes available at the moment. 

No cook-book can be sufficiently expanded to pro- 
vide for great variation in climate, food materials, and 
utensils. The cook must constantly adapt to her condi- 
tions, she must be observant of the changes of tem- 
perature and learn when one food material or flavor 
may be substituted for another. 

If uncertain about the wisest combination of ar- 
ticles of food, whether in a single dish or for the differ- 
ent courses in a menu, it is safe to follow the plan of 
contrast. Thus the cream soup is served with crisp 
crackers or croutons, the creanied fish is covered with 
buttered crumbs and baked till crisp, the croquettes 
are crisp outside and creamy within. 

Another point is to add to any food, substances sup- 
plying any of the food principles it lacks. Potatoes are 
mashed with cream or butter because they lack fat, are 
blended with tgg for croquettes or souffle because they 
lack protein. Eggs lack starch, so we serve them on 
toast or use them in puddings with rice, tapioca, etc. 

Composite preparations of food, often classed as en- 
trees or made dishes, are known by many names de- 
rived from different languages, especially from the 
French. 



306 



FORM. 125 

Here is no place to attempt to define all the terms 
used on a menu card, but we may group some of these 
compound dishes under a few general heads and study 
their characteristics. 

Soups have as their basis either animal or vegetable soups 
stock or both combined. Stock is secured by the aid of 
heat and moisture from portions of meat and vegeta- 
bles too tough to be used in other ways. Flavor and 
some nutriment are soaked, cooked and strained out, 
and this water is the stock which is then further fla- 
vored and garnished by the addition of some contrast- 
ing substance. Thus a meat stock is usually garnished 
with grains or shreds of vegetable, and a vegetable 
stock is often combined with milk and thickened. 

Stews are thick soups containing larger portions of stews 
the meat and vegetables. These are also known as 
chowders, ragouts, salmis, etc., etc. Sometimes a stew 
has dumplings steamed over it, sometimes it is cov- 
ered with a crust of pastry, mashed potatoes, or cooked 
cereal and baked as a pie. Here again are combined 
contrasting food principles. 

Hash is a term that also may include the assortment Hash 
of foods known as scallops, timbales, etc., since the 
substance giving a specific name to each of these is 
minced or chopped fine before it is combined with other 
materials. Meat and fish are put on toast or mixed 
with potatoes or bread crumbs or encased in rice or 
in a pastry shell. The exact proportions of the con- 



307 



126 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 



Souffles 



Salads 



Left Overs 



trasting- ingredients is of less importance than their 
proper moistening and flavoring. 

The scallop owes- its name to the shell in which it is 
often served. Au gratin is another name for the same 
combination of a meat or vegetable with sauce and 
crumbs. The croquette gets its name from its crisp 
crust, the timbale from its thimblc-like shape. Rissoles 
and krouicskies are kinds of fried meat pies or cro- 
quettes in a pastry crust. 

Souffles have as a foundation fruit or vegetable pulp 
or minced meat in a sauce and are puffed up by the in- 
troduction of stiffly beaten ^gg whites. The name is 
sometimes given to cold dishes where a similar effect is 
gained by whii)pcd cream. 

Salads may consist of cold cooked meats, fish, etc, 
vegetables cooked or raw, fruits and nuts. Almost any 
food may l)e served in a salad, singly or in combina- 
tion. The distinctive feature of a salad is the dressing 
of fat, oil, butter, or thick cream, which is variously 
flavored. 

Many of the most satisfactory of these made dishes 
doubtless had their origin in an effort to use left-overs. 

Milk surplus may be used in many ways. Skimmed 
milk answers as well as full milk for soups and doughs 
when fat is also used. Even if otherwise likely to 
curdle in heating, the addition of a little cooking soda 
makes it possible to s-cald milk, and then it may be used 
for custards, ])U(ldings, etc. Sour milk is available for 



308 



FORM. 



127 



doughs and cheese, and cream may be substituted for 
butter and milk in simpler cakes and cookies. 

Eggs left at the table in a soft-boiled condition may 
be cooked again until hard and then combined with 
sauces and served on toast or used as a garnish in 
soups or salads. 

Meat left-overs should be carefully sorted. 

The obloquy heaped upon hashes is due to careless- 
ness. All uneatable portions, — bone, skin, and gristle, 
should be removed, but may yield a little stock if put 
in cold water. The clear lean may have about one- 
fourth as much fat with it if it is to be used in the com- 
bination with potatoes, bread or cereal. There may be 
two grades of the lean, one cut in pieces of uniform 
shape an inch or more across, to be served in a sauce 
or moulded in a jelly ; the other to be chopped fine for 
hashes, croquettes, etc. 

Vegetables. Cooked vegetables spoil quickly but 
often may serve as soup, or a scallop, or a salad for a 
second meal. 

Fruits. It seems practically impossible to put to- 
gether several kinds of fruit without good results. 
Combinations of left-over fruits, raw or cooked, will 
serve as the basis of a gelatine dessert made like the 
jelly described elsewhere, or may be frozen alone, or 
combined witn cream, or thickened for a pudding 
sauce, or diluted with water for a fruit punch. Add 
sugar as desired. 



Meat 
Left Overs 



Fruit 
Combinatioas 



309 



128 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Attractive 
Form 



Garnish 



Shapes 



Bread. No scrap of bread of any kind need be lost. 
Brown bread and muffins of different kinds are some- 
times wasted when they might be steamed, or toasted 
and served in cream sauce, or made into puddings hke 
a baked Indian pudding. SHces of stale raised bread, 
dried, gives us croutons, cut in cubes, or crumbs white 
and brown, coarse and fine, to use for scalloped dishes, 
stuffing for fish and poultry, and for many kinds of 
sweet puddings. 

The use of gelatine is an instance of our endeavor 
to make foods attractive in form. It has doubtful food 
value and nO' agreeable flavor, but it gives solidity to 
fruit juices, or in aspic jelly to soup stock, and in such 
jellies we may mould fruits for dessert, or meat and 
vegetables for salad. 

Garnish is often desirable to make foods more ap- 
petizing, but it is a question whether this purpose is 
served by the addition of unedible materials which 
must be laid one side before the food itself is accessible. 

The truest art does not waste effort on useless things. 

The form of foods is further varied by utensils pro- 
ducing different shapes, the meat choppers with ad- 
justable knives for particles of different sizes, the 
fancy knives for making thin slices or balls of vegeta- 
bles and fruits, the muffin pans, waffle iron, the timbale 
iron, the many cutters and moulds for puddings, etc 
The tendency of the present day is plainly towards 
small portions for individual service, and here again a 



310 



FORM. 



129 



new recipe is not required, only the necessary changes 
in time of cooking which would result when a mass was 
divided into several portions-. Moulds in which a fgod 
is to be cooked should be greased, but rinsed with cold 
water when the food is only to be cooled in them. 

Scales and measures are lacking in many kitchens 
and accurate work is impossible without them. The 



Weighing 




SALMON LOAF. 



average kitchen need not be furnished with many 
special utensils, but there should be a full supply of 
"general purpose" articles of the best grade of mate- 
rial and finish. 

The utensils should be adapted to the size of the 
family and tO' the physical ability of those who are 
to use them. The saving of human life and energy 
is more to be considered than the durability of imple- 
ments. 



utensils 



311 



Preparation 



Right 
Heat 



Common 
Salt 



FLAVOR 

The art of cooking shows us many ways of develop- 
ing the appetizing flavor of foods. 

First, by the removal of whatever might produce bad 
flavors, such portions as skin and tainted bits of meat, 
decayed parts of vegetables, and over brown portions 
of bread and cake. 

Second, by the right application of heat and moisture 
to bring out the natural flavors in each food. The 
steeping of tea instead of boiling, the browning of the 
coffee berry and cocoa bean before they are ground, 
the flavor developed by long cooking in cases like the 
baking of beans and steaming of puddings and brown 
bread. Sometimes a portion of the nutritive value is 
sacrificed to flavor, as in the browning of the outer 
surface of the steak or roast. 

Third, by the use of many additional flavoring ma- 
terials to intensify natural" flavors to supply deficiencies 
and to produce variety. 

Salt is useful as a preservative, seems to supply a 
need in the human system and therefore is an agreea- 
ble addition, but it also serves to bring out natural 
flavors. As an illustration of this power, taste of a 
meat or chicken broth that is unsalted, and again after 
salting, when the flavor of the meat will be much more 
apparent. For this purpose salt is often eaten with 
fruits, is added in minute quantities to lemon and other 
jellies made with gelatine, to custards, ice creams, and 
often even to coffee. 

130 



312 



FLAVOR. 



131 



Lemon juice is also an aid in extending other flavor 
and is acceptable with many foods, especially fish. 

Salt, pepper, lemon, and onion are the extent of the 
flavors used in some households, and food need not be 
insipid if no others are tried, but it is wiser to mahe 
occasional use of the long list of condiments and 
spices. 

The distinction as usually made is that the condi- 
ments pepper, mustard, etc., are used with meats, 
while spices, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., 
are associated with fruits and sweets, but this classi- 
fication has exceptions. Spices are neglected nowa- 
days and it often seems as if people hardly were ac- 
quainted with any other flavor for dessert dishes than 
vanilla. The list of flavoring herbs is a long one, run- 
ning through sage, thyme, majoram, summer savory, 
bay leaves, tarragon and parsley, which are used dry 
or fresh, to the green mint, cress, and salad plants 
which are condimental rather than nutritive. 

There are many compound flavors which every 
housekeeper should keep in her store closet, and use in 
her cooking instead of supplying a single perennial 
catsup on the table, such are curry, tabasco, tarragon 
vinegar, mushroom catsup, poultry seasoning, etc. 

Onion, celery, cheese, chocolate, coffee, meat ex- 
tracts, each may have an important place in our list of 
flavors. 

Sugar is an important food and also must be looked 
upon as a flavor, since it will often bring an insipid 
vegetable up to its normal condition. 



Common 

Flavoring 

Material 



Condiments 
and Spices 



Sugar 

as Flavoring 



313 



132 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, 



Blended 
Flavors 



Adding 
Flavoring 



Reasons 

for the Use 

»f Flavoring 



French cooking excels in that blending of flavors 
which produces an agreeable effect, though no one is 
apparent. 

The best results are usually reached when the flavor- 
ing is combined with the food in the process of cook- 
ing, but there are right and wrong ways of doing this. 
If salt is put on the cut surface of a roast, juice will be 
drawn out, but if sprinkled over the fat will gradually 
flavor all. Whole herbs and spices, tied in a bit of 
cheese cloth may be left to cook in a soup stock or 
brown gravy until the desired flavor is attained and 
then withdrawn, leaving the stock clear. Ground spices 
would give a cloudy effect. 

The use of flavors is economic, for thus inexpensive 
foods are varied and made palatable. It is a part of 
the art of cooking, since nowhere are greater skill 
and intelligence required than in the distribution of 
these elusive yet powerful substances, and by discrim- 
ination in the use of condiments- and spices our foods 
may be made more healthful. 



314 



Buying 



FOOD FOR THE DAY 

In the preceding pages the most important foods, 
their composition and preparation for the table have 
been considered. Our study would be incomplete with- 
out some reference to their best combination for the 
daily meals that they may appeal to the palate and pro- 
mote health without exceeding the bounds of mod- 
erate incomes. 

There are three important divisions in the prepara- 
tion of food for a family, wise buying, good cooking, s^rvilTg 
and careful serving. When buying foods the house- 
keeper should know the sum available for feeding each 
person for the day or week, she must note the season 
of each food, and also adapt her choice to the climate 
and weather. She must remember the individual 
needs of each member of the household, depending 
upon age, health, and occupation. 

The art of cookery finds its field between the ^^^^ 
choice of food and the serving of the cooked dishes at cookery 
the table. As with other arts perfection can come 
only through constant practice in manipulation, and 
from continual adaptation of conditions to the desired 
end. No formulas for combinations of foods can be 
devised so complete that continuous care is not re- 
quired in every step of the process. 

133 



315 



KU 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 



Cost of 
Food 



"Constants" 



Vvw housekeepers have the time or take the trouble 
to keep their aeeounts in sueh a way as to know how 
nuieh it eosts to feed eaeh ])erson in their charge for 
a day, week, or month ; fewer still know anything of 
the relative ])roi)()rtion of protein, fat, and carbo- 
hydrate which is placed on the family table week by 
week. 

When purchasing clothing we take note of its wear- 
ing (jualities and the ability to keep us warm, but we 
seldom apply the same reasoning to our foods, al- 
though it is quite as necessary. 

Some one has estimated that in the average house- 
hold one-tenth of the sum spent for food will go for 
flour, a tenth for butter, another for sugar, another for 
milk, one-fifth for meat, one-fifth for fruit and vegeta- 
bles, and the remaining fifth for sundries. 

There are certain articles of which e(|ual quantities 
will be used each week or month, and by an examina- 
ti(^n of previous bills it is easy to estimate the amount 
required for a given j^eriod. Many of these ''con- 
stants" like butter, sugar, and flour, can be bought in 
quantities sufficient for a month, then the housekeeper 
knows how to apportion her money for the variable 
suj^plies. 

It is not necessary for the housekeeper to attempt 
to estimate the ])roportion of fcvxl princii)les in every 
dish she serves, but once a month or a quarter, if her 
accounts are well kept, she can see how nearly she ap- 



316 



FOOD FOR A DAY. 135 

proaches such daily estimate as the one below for each 
member of her family : 

A DAY'S RATION 

Ounces. 

Meat and fish 12 to 16 

One egg 2 

Butter -ito 2 

Milk, I gill to I pt 4 to 16 

Sugar 2 to 3 

Dry fruits i 

Legumes i 

Fresh vegetables and fruits 6 to 8 

Potatoes 8 to 12 

Flour and grains 12 to 16 

Multiply this by thirty and we have a fair allow- 
ance for one person for one month. Multiply this by 
the number of persons in the family, or, to be more 
accurate, by the fractional parts of a man's ra- 
tions, usually allowed for women and children, and 
we have an ample supply for one month for the fam- 
ily. 

If the larger quantity of potatoes has been used the 
smaller amount of flour would have been ample, while 
if eggs were cheap and two or more consumed by each 
person daily there should be a corresponding reduc- 
tion in the amount of meat and fish. 

Of the amount purchased there will be not far from Refuse 

and Waste 

10 per cent refuse and waste. Refuse in the form of 
bones, skin, and parings, waste of what is- left on in- 
dividual plates and odd bits that are spoiled and are 



317 



136 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 



A Day's 
Alowance 



Cost of 
Labor 



Prepared 
Food 



Buying 



thrown away. Much fat also is thrown away, but it 
should be remembered that fat is worth more than 
twice as much as the carbohydrates in keeping the body 
warm. 

Twenty-five cents a head a day is a fair allowance 
for an abundance and variety of wholesome, satisfying 
fbod. Life may be sustained on half that amount, while 
fifty cents daily cannot nourish more completely, but 
may provide luxuries and foods out of season. 

The actual cost of table board appears, from studies 
made under different conditions, to be about equally 
divided between the raw material and the labor re- 
quired for the preparation and service. It may be 
cheaper tO' pay a little more for a prepared food than 
' to use one's own strength or pay for service to get 
ready a less expensive article. 

The woman who has time and strength and no 
other way to earn should choose the cheaper grade 
of food. Cheapness does not always indicate mean- 
ness, it may mean an abundant supply or less human 
labor in preparation. 

There is a growing tendency toward the fuller 
preparation of food outside the home, but there is the 
more need that the housekeeper should be familiar 
with processes of manufacture that she may know 
when she is well served. 

The housekeeper who never goes to grocery and 
market and does not study the market reports in the 



318 



FOOD FOR A DAY. 137 

papers is rarely an economical buyer. She is liable 
to go on in the same old routine instead of varying her 
menus with the litcxc surorises that may be found by 
visiting the markets. There are bargains to be had in 
foods as well as in clothing, when the market is over- 
stocked, or some odd lot is left over. Cuts of meat 
cannot be made to order and the first choice falls to 
the early visitor to the market. 

Where one woman must take entire care of a fam- planning 
ily, she must plan carefully if she would have a well 
balanced household. Elaborate cooking and meals of 
many courses are out of the question even if they were 
desirable. Meals should be planned several days in 
advance and the buying done accordingly, though such 
plans will be much modified in the performance. 

A reserve store of canned foods, etc., is a great aid 
in the emergencies that arise in all households. 

By wise use of outside supplies and by making one's system 
head do more work and hands and feet less, the food 
for a family may be provided without exhausting the 
energy of the housekeeper. 

The actual cooking necessary for a family through 
a day may be done in a shorter period than is usually 
allotted to it if the work is planned wisely. The de- 
tail of arrangement depends upon the kind of fuel 
used, and whether the chief meal is served at noon or 
night. 



319 



138 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 



Breakfast 



Dinner 



The breakfast should be a simple meal — fruit, raw 
or cooked, cereal or warm muffins, (seldom both at 
the same meal), and eggs, bacon, creamed salt fish or 
some cold meat. When the meat is cold the bread is 
warm, while with bacon or omelet toast may be served. 

Some one must be in the kitchen for some time to 
prepare and serve even a simple breakfast, especially 
if there are tardy members of the faniily. With the 
same supply of fuel required for the muffins, it is not 
difficult for a woman of average ability to bake a cake 
or pudding which will then be ready for the noon or 
the night meal. Or at this time the vegetables may be 
cleaned, fruit picked over and little details attended 
to which save much time later. 

Noon dinners usually are considered easier for 
housekeeper and cook, since the work can all be done 
by daylight and the hours of work if not actually less 
are not so extended through the day. When supplies 
are ordered early and delivered promptly, much energy 
and worry is saved. At least half the time the soup 
may be derived from previous supplies, and be pre- 
Dared in advance. 

One kind of meat or fish, potatoes or rice and a 
single other vegetable or salad are enough for all 
ordinary occasions. Fruit or a dessert prepared earlier 
in the day completes a meal sufficient for all needs of 
the luiman body if the articles have been chosen wisely 
to supplement each other. 



320 



FOOD FOR A DAY. 



139 



For a noon luncheon or night supper there are many 
variations of the souffles, hashes and scallops already 
described. One of these with bread and butter, tea or 
cocoa, fruit and a simple sweet will provide all that is 
essential. 

To prepare meals for a family year in and out 
is not an easy task. The housekeeper must remember 
not only the cost and nutritive value of the foods but 
the whims and notions of her family. The ability of 
the human being to talk makes him much harder to 
•feed than the animals who must accept the balanced 
ration bestowed upon them. 

A few points to be observed in planning menus are 
these : avoid routine, introduce novelties, cheap or ex- 
pensive, in attractive form, but say little of nutritive 
value or cost. Do not allow the same meat or fish to 
appear too many meals in succession. Let some- 
thing else intervene. When the meat course is sub- 
stantial let the dessert be light and make the dessert 
especially nutritious when the meat course is insuf- 
ficient. Let there be variety on the table through the 
week or month but have few dishes at each meal. 

The fundamental processes of cookery are not many 
and the essential points have been outlined in these 
pages. An intelligent woman can adapt the recipes in 
any reliable cook-book to her own conditions after she 
knows something of the composition of foods and the 
way each is affected' by heat and moisture. 



Supper 



Planning: 
Menus 



In 
Conclusion 



321 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Boston Cooking School Cook Book ($2.00). Fannie M. Farmer. 

Boston Cook Book ($2.00). Mary J. Lincoln. 

Catering for Two ($L25). Alice J. James. 

Century Cook Book ($2.00). Mary Roland. 

Home Science Cook Book ($L00). Anna Barrows and Mary 

J. Lincoln. 
Kitchen Companion ($2.50). Maria Parloa. 
Practical Cooking and Serving ($2.00). Janet M. Hill. 
Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking ($0.40). M. H. AbeL 
Young Housekeeper ($1.00). Maria Parloa. 
Borer's (Mrs.) Ne'w Cook Book ($2.00). Mrs. S. T. Rorer. 
Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking ($1.00). Helen 

Campbell. 
Hostess of To-day ($1.50). Linda Hull Larned. 
Luncheons ($1.40). Mary Roland. 

Note. — These books may be borrowed by Members. Any one may jnir- 
chase them through the School by sendhig price. 

GOVERNMENT BULLETINS 

Free, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

34. Meats: Composition and Cooking — Charles D. Woods. 

85. Fish as Food— C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 

93. Sugar as Food — Mary Hinman Abel. 

121. Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food — M. H. Abel. 

128. Eggs and their uses as Foods — C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 

182. Poultry as Food— Helen W. Atwater. 

183, Meat on the Farm — Andrew Boss. 

203.* Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies — Parloa. 

249. Cereal Breakfast Foods — Woods and Snyder. 

256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table — Parloa, 

263. Use of Milk as Food— R. S. Milner. 

293. Use of Fruits as Food — C. F. Langworthy. 

295. Potato and other Root Crops as Food — Langworthy. 

298. Food Value of Corn and Corn Products, 

332, Nuts and their use as Food — M. E. Jaffa. 

359. Canning Vegetables in the Home — J. F. Breazeale, 

375. Care of Food in the Home — Mary Hinman Abel. 

389. Bread and Bread Making — Helen W. Atwater. 

391. Economical use of Meats in the Home — Hunt 



322 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

PART III. 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
first sheet of the test. Use a lig-ht g-rade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instruc- 
tor may know that you understand the subject. Read the 
lesson paper a number of times before attempting to 
answer the questions. 



1. Mention and describe three methods of making- 

doughs light. 

2. What are the advantages in the use of baking 

powder ? When should baking soda and cream 
of tartar be used separately? 

3. Describe some mixture where more than one 

means of making it Hght is used. 

4. How does the bread obtainable outside your home 

compare with what you can produce there as 
to cost, including time and fuel, substance, and 
palatability ? 

5. Experiment, if you can, under your own condi- 

tions and report of the effect of too rapid and 
too slow baking on different types of dough. 

6. Rearrange this recipe for a simple cake in proper 

proportions and order of mixing : ^ ^%Z, 2 
teaspoonfuls butter, 2 c. milk, i c. flavoring, I 
teasp. flour, 3 c. baking powder, i teasp. sugar 



323 



PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 

7. Give examples wherein the form aiul manner of 

serving may add to the attractiveness of food 
and not reqnire too much time. 

8. How does bread tlour cHf^"er from pastry flour? 

How does this affect its use in doughs? 

9. Give the general proix)rtion of flour and liquid 

in (1) soft doughs, (2) a batter, (3) muffin 

mixtures, (4) pastry or cookies. 
10. W hy does shortening make doughs flaky? 
M. Give the one method of making bread. What 

conditions will hasten the process; what will 

retard the process? 
Successful pastry — how made ? 

13. What varieties of cake are there and what ai 

the general proportion of the ingredients ? Give 
some of the reasons why a cake "falls?" What 
makes cake dry and coarse in texture? 

14. Discuss the use and abuse of "fancy cookery." 



15 

16 
17 

18 
19 



\\'hat is meant by contrast in foods? Give ex- 
amples. 

^\'hat can you say of flavoring? 

How ma\' "left-overs" of meat — of vegetables — 
of bread, be used? 

On what principle should menus be planned? 

(iive the menus for the meals s^Tved in your 
household during one week and suggest how 
thev might be improved without additional la- 
bor or expense. 



324 



SUPPLEMENT 



PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

IN 

APPLICATION TO DAILY LIFE 

Bv Anna Barrows 

Director, Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer, Teachers, 
College, Columbia University, and Simmons College. 

The conditions of life in the households represented 
by the pupils of this school vary greatly with locality 
and climate, and, taken together, would give a fine 
composite picture of the average American home. 

While reading the hundreds of papers which have 
passed through my hands since the School opened, 
nothing has impressed me more than the variety of 
conditions to which any woman in this country 
must be ready to adjust herself at short notice. 
Much human energy might be set free for other pur- 
poses, and much money saved, if men and women 
gave closer study to some of these e very-day questions. 

Emerson has said truly: "We must learn the homely 
laws of fire and water; we must feed, wash, plant, 
build. These are the ends of necessity, and first 
in the order of nature. Poverty, frost, famine, 
disease, debt, are the beadles and guardsmen that 
hold us to common sense." 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FUELS 

Every householder and housekeeper should have 
more definite knowledge regarding the amount of 
heat available from a given bulk of each of the stand - 

147 



325 



148 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

ard fuels. One cord of wood is approximately equal 
to one-half ton of coal; i,ooo cubic feet of coal-gas 
is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about four and 
one-half gallons of oil or gasoline. The time re- 
quired to keep stove and fire in good condition must 
be counted with the cost of the fuel. 

In this connection, facts reported in some of the 
test papers received are interesting. 

From a southern plantation, wood is reported as 
costing only the labor of preparation for the stove, 
and that only sixty cents a cord. In another locality, 
one sixteenth of a cord of wood is used dail}^ at a cost 
of twelve cents, or about two dollars a cord. Else- 
where, a housekeeper finds wood at five dollars a 
cord the cheapest fuel within her reach, and estimates 
her daily supply to cost ten cents, or about one fiftieth 
of a cord. Another burns a cord of wood each week 
for cooking only. 

An English pupil writes: "The range to which I 
am most accustomed is the almost universal farm- 
house open fireplace and Glendenning oven, used in 
Cumberland and Westmoreland. The oven is heated 
by the hot air from the fire by a passage at the back 
of the fireplace, with only one damper for oven. At 
the opposite side there is nearly always what is called 
here a 'set-pot' for heating water. The heat of 
my oven is greatest at the bottom, on account of the 
hot air being underneath. What is not cooked in 
the oven is done over the open fire." 



326 



FUELS 149 

COAL 

The price of coal varies according to quality and 
distance from the mines, and may cost from three to 
twelve dollars a ton. A hodful or scuttle of coal 
may weigh from fifteen to thirty pounds, but after 
weighing the contents of an average hod, any house- 
keeper may estimate readily the amount used daily, 
or for different purposes. 

One woman writes that she can do her day's work 
with a single hodful of coal, making a ton last nearly 
three months, while a maid in her kitchen usually 
disposes of a ton a month. Another housekeeper 
runs a fire day and night on half a ton a month, 
while in a colder region three hods daily is the usual 
winter allowance. 

GAS 

Gas is available in comparatively few sections of 
the country outside of the large cities, but wherever 
it is used, housekeepers soon learn to plan their cook- 
ery to save fuel. This usually results in economy 
of time, so that fewer hours are spent in the kitchen, 
though all the necessary work is as well done as 
before. 

A thousand feet of gas a week is a generous allow- 
ance for kitchen use in an average family. Accord- 
ing to one report, gas at $1.50 a thousand feet has 
proved cheaper than coal at $5.00 a ton. 

One cannot use a gas range in the same fashion as 
the wood or coal stove, but must adapt herself to its 



327 



ISO 



/'h'/X( iri.h.s ()/'- i(>()k/h'\ 



|)l;iii ,'iiii| llic ii.iliiic ol llic liiil. A lilc.'un cooker 
makers il. |)o:;:,il)lc to cook <'iioiij',li looil lof Iwo days 
ovci" one hiinicr a 1. oik- liiiic. Today's dinner, a 
cereal lor tonioii'ow's hicaklasl, Some (ii|) (mustards 
lor ;in|)|)ci", a sLulTed jowl lo l>c Ihowikm j over in llie 
oven lor tomorrow's dinner, all may l)(; cookin)', al 

Ol|C<'. 

Then, vvitli llic ovens as c(»iiimonlv arra!ij'C(l, we 
may l)ioil or ioa;;l, Ix'iicalli the Manic wlm li r; licatiiij^ 
l.lie oilier oven to l»;ike | lot.i toe:;, l»rcad or cake. 

( )ne |»n|»il i(|)oit'; thai, she l»oil;; |)ol.a,l-oes in l,h(^ 
lowci- p.irt ol the donhlc l>oilcr while cookinj; cereal 
lor the next, da\', and aliove llial, sets a hasin ol milk 
lo licit lor a |)nddiii;', or ;,ance or i;oii|». Hy ;;ucli 
lord Ik tiijdi I the <'\|)ciisc ol j',a,s is no j;rea,t,ei" than 
aii\' other tiicl, :iiid IIk- lahor ol housework is mncli 
i"cdnce< I . 

ALCOHOL 

The removal ol the lax on fuel alcohol, Janiiriry, 
Kjoy, nia\' iiKsin mm h to the lioii:i(d>.ee|>ei- as well as 
1.0 the mamilacl nrci. 10\'ci\' one who has used a 
clialmj; dish (tr ah oli()l lam|) has wished that- alcohol 
was as cIksiii as. keros.eiie. Ihidci the new law il 
may reach t ha I | lom t . 

SiiK'c it ma\' I »e made of many coarse and interior 
ve^el.al)l(! |ii'oducts now n!mse(|, there need he no 
lack ol" this fuel, which is i)ract.ically without, odor or 
s.mokc. 

Tliti'. the housckcc|tcr must he ivsidy to ada])l hcr- 



328 



I'UI'llS 151 

self Lo .'inollior clian^c; in Incl:; .iixl .'ijiparatus for its 

US(3. 

Willi the alcoliol lanif) and the hay-hox nuicli of 
the discomfort and dirt now associated witli kit(li(;n 
])rocesscs will be banished, never to return, and the 
kitclicn its(;lf well may be di^milied with th(; name of 
"laboratory." 

KEROSENE 

The small oil and ^^asoline stoves are not used as 
much as they deserve. With intelli^'ent can; ;ind 
hi^di ^'rade oil, a well-made oil st(;ve is safe. I'ire in 
any form is not a ])laythin^. 

Jwery household witliout gas (jr electricity shoidd 
be supplied with a good three-burner lamp stove and 
small oven to ht it. 'J'hese will cost about $3 .00. II 
this lam]> is given the same care that is giv(;n lamps 
for evening use, results will be satisfactory. Jiut 
one must not expect a small stove to work as rajndly 
or accomplish as mu(;h as a hirger one. Have the 
lamj) lull of ()\\ U) d(; good work. Do not let it Imrn 
many hours in succession, but give it a chance to 
co(j1 off. Keep the wicks even and clc;an, and have 
new ones when they become discolored, f;r too short 
to reach the bottom of the lamp. 

Oil stoves are hable to smoke if they stand in a 
draft, and therefore should be protecter]. Choose 
utensils to fit the stove and oven, ;i,nd nev(!r fill them 
so bdl lliat then; is danger of boilnig ov(tr into the 
lamp. Since the heat is greatest in the low(;r j>art of 



329 



152 



J'NINCiri.l'.S ()/'- i'OOKr RV 



l.lic oven, cook 0,1 llic ii|i|)cr :,licl( .r, iiiikIi ;i:-; possibles, 
or {'Xcli.'iiijM' when possible!. A;;l)c:;lo:i iii.il.s in.'iy \)v. 
ii;;<'(| oil llic lower iJiclvc:;. Willi Ivvo Mii^'c hiiriK^r 
Liiiip :,lov<':;, .'iiid ;iii oven lo III, one, il, li;i;; Itccii c.'isy 
scvcr.il liiiK ;;, in my own (•\|icii('iicc, l,o do all llici 
cookiii); lor a laiiiily ol :;ix oi" ('i};lil. |»ci":;oii;i. 

I' IKI'.M'ifiS COOKIOKS 

'riic Noiwci'iaii (^)ol>:iii}; I'ox or ImicIcss Cool: 
Sl.ovc i;i <lc:;(i il )ci| and illii'.l ra l."d (»ii |)aj^('S 12-1;^. 
Tlii:; device lia;, heeli ex|)loilc(| ;,o niijcli ol lale thai, 
il, d(';,eive;. I nil Ik'!" de;,cii| )l ion. 

TliC' new iiilcre;;l in llii;; niclliod ol cool'.ini', is |ii"o!»- 
ahly due jo llie ex |»erinienl ;; made in m;*";, under I, lie 
direct, ion ol I, lie ( 'oiiinii;;:;ary (ieiieial ol I lie War 
I )c| i.ii I men I , and llie;,e were llie re:;nll, ol a, report, 
troiii ll|iilc<| Slate;; ("oii;ailar ("leik, ( leor};e 11. 
Miiipli\, ol iMaiiklorl, (ieiniany. I'elow ii; a con- 
den;, alioii ol Mr. IVinipliN'';; report,, a:; it, appealed 111 
|);iil\' ('oii;;iilar l\e|)(»il;; m April, km'^. 

"In .ill addre;;;; to an audience ol woikiii)', people, 
Mrs. I'aek, wili- ol llie director ol llie iiidn;;tria,l 
;;clioo| at iMaiikloil, hroujdd, l,o tlie alleiilioii ol lier 
licarei;;, tlie liay liox oi" lirclcss sl,ove. 

" l'"<ver\' lionr.cwife knows iJiat, a pot, ol eolle<' can 
he k( pi hot loi ;,oine liliH', willioiil. lire, ;ainpl\' hy 
wrappiiM', it III a dry towel lo Imiiler e:,cape ol lie.-il,. 
The Noiwej'.ian " an loina t,i<' kiliheii" ;illracled at,- 
tciilioii ;il the 1 *ari;; <'X po;at,ioii <•! i.'Wiy hut tailed to 
conic into j'eiicral n;;e. Now in lieilin, 1\1 iinicli, and 



330 



IIKILh.SS COO/s/h' n;j 

"^'"''' '■'•"<'■• |"'|'iil;.i Iccliir,.,:; .-iic slmwiii,; (!)<■ prac- 

^i'"'"' V.lllir ol (III;; incl ||,,(| of coolsinjr 

"Mrs Ii;icl< sl.;i(c<I (|i;,( :,|„. |,,.,,| ,,,,,.,1 (|„. 1,.,^, |,,^^ 
loi- lliirlccn yc.'irs, llim; ,;iva(,|y ivdn.inj: H"' •'.'inv; <.! 

i«)llS('|<(«Cl.illJ'.. A(, (,,:;(, ;;|„. ,,:;,.,| (|„. |„,^ i)„.,vly I,,, 

''^''^'P finished lood vv.irin. I )i;;c()V('riiiK "'•■•'' Mm^ 
process (»r cookiiij; ((Miliiiiicl, :;||,. cxpcriinciilcd and 
'"""•I "'•''■ :•!"• <<'nld liiiisli, m ll,,. |„)x, all hoilcd 
•'""I i<'as(cd meals, s.'iuees, fish, s«)ii|., ve)Md,al)l(;s, 
IruitS, |»iiddiii);s, e(,e. 

"Tlie hox e.'iiiiK.l, he iis<.d jor arlieles whose chief 
ji,(.U-.'uai(;n lies ill (he erispncss resnll.iii): Irom ra,|>i(I 
cookinj,' oil a Ik.I, (ire, Imi(, Uk^ rest of IJk; in(;a,l Djay 
'"' '■''•"'>' -'""I ho(, III ||„- },(,x. I>a,l,ienee will seeiiro 
"•'•''''■•' cxperieiire^ .'iii,| iciiiove all d(Mil,(,:;. in 
K<'iiera,l, l.wo or (Jirec; immilc-, acdial ImhIim); on (Ik; 
lire is siilfieieid, lor ve)'e(,;, Mcs, winle ro.'isUul meat 
re(|uires l,wen(,y (,o (,hir(,y niiniMcs. MosI, articles 
shrjtdd retnaiii l,ijdil,Iy close<| m (he Im.x h)r l.wo or 
""<•'• '""ir:;, and may he. |e((, (,,, |<,.,.,, ||,,(. jnr ten or 
l.welve lionrs. 

"'^"'■'' I'';:niiM-:;, Innl,, (d,c., should he well soal<e(| 
in cold water, .'diowed (,o hoil two to liv(* immitc; ;in<l 
lelt h)r two hours in the hox. Soil ve);eh'd»l(!s should 
be merely hroiijdit (,o a hod and then placed for an 
'"""■ '"■ 'wr) in (he hox. vSonps an- improved hy 
I'eiii}'. allowed (,, drvelop \ny (wo 01 (h,,.,- hour:; m 
I he hox . 

"Covers of pots should nr.t Im- lifted wlirn Wwy 



331 



154 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

are being transferred. The object is to retain the 
heat as long as possible when it has once been de- 
veloped. Too much water is better than too little. 

"A home-made hay-box will usually be found 
cheaper and more practical than those with immovable 
felt and upholstery. Almost any box will do, which 
has a tight cover. The wood should not be too thin, 
and there should be no knot-holes or cracks. Old 
trunks and v-alises may sometimes be used in this 
way. 

"The box should be loosely filled with shavings, 
paper or hay, the last being probably most satis- 
factory. The hay should be renewed every two or 
three weeks. Nests are made for the pots and the 
hav packed tightly under and around them. Any 
kind of pots can be used, although, of course, earthen 
ones hold the heat best. The tighter the tops fit, 
the better, but if the food is to be used within six 
or eight hours, they need not be hermetically closed. 
When the pots have been placed in the box carefully, 
without lifting the lids, they should be covered with 
a pillow and the lid at once securely closed. 

"When not in use, the box should always be left 
open and the hay loosened, the pillow being hung 
in the air to dry thoroughly. 

"The chief advantages of the hay-box may be 
summarized as follows: 

"The cost of fuel can be reduced four-fifths or 
even nine-tenths. 



332 



FIRE LESS COOKER 155 

"The pots are not made difficult to wash; they 
are not blackened, and they will last for an almost 
indefinite period of time. 

"The food is better cooked, more tastv, more 
nutritious and more digestible. 

" Kitchen odors are obviated. 

"Time and labor are saved. 

"There is no need of stirring, no fear of scorching 
or burning. 

"The cares of the housewife are lessened, and her 
health and happiness are protected. 

"The kitchen need not be in disorder half of the day. 

"Warm water can always be had when there is 
illness in the house and during the summer when 
fires are not kept up. 

"Where workmen's families live crowded in one 
or two rooms, the additional suffering caused by 
kitchen heat is obviated by the hay-box, for the pre- 
liminary cooking can all be done in the cool of the 
morning. 

"At picnics the appetites of young people are only 
half satisfied by sandwiches and other cold food. 
The hay-box can furnish a hot meal anywhere at 
any time. 

"Similarly, men and women working in the fields, 
or having night employment, can take with them 
hot coffee, soup or an entire meal, thus avoiding the 
necessity of returning home at a fixed hour or having 
it brought to them by another member of the family. 



333 



156 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

"When, different employments make it necessary 
for the various members of a family to take their 
meals at different hours, this can be arranged with- 
out a multiplication of work with the assistance of 
the hay -box." 

This consular report covered the ground so fully 
that any intelligent woman can make it the basis of 
experiments adapted to her own surroundings. 

A small trunk measuring 18x22x24 inches, an 
agate-ware kettle with close tin cover, made to order 
to fit in, or merely rest on the kettle, were the appli- 
ances which served me satisfactorily this summer. 

It was not easy to secure hay, so we looked about 
for a similar non-conducting substance, and found 
some boxes of excelsior and sawdust — not quite 
enough of either, so they were combined and put 
in bags and sewed up closely enough to prevent clut- 
ter. The most of the bags were of denim, but some 
thin cotton bags, in which five and ten pounds of 
sugar had come, were filled, and did good service in 
filling chinks. 

To test the heat- retaining capacity of this outfit, 
two gallons of water was raised to the boiling point 
in the kettle. Closely covered, it was placed on one 
of the thicker cushions in the trunk and the others 
fitted in closely around and over the kettle. A 
blanket and some newspapers were spread over all, 
and the trunk locked. Twenty-four hours later the 
water was hot enough for dish-washing or bathing. 



334 



• FIRELESS COOKER 157 

The statements made in the above report were 
fully verified by my own experience. This method 
of cooking is especially adapted to any article requir- 
ing long, gentle heat, such as the making of soup- 
stocks and broths and rendering tough meats tender. 
With very tough fowls, when the water cools down 
below 150-160° F., the whole may again be raised to 
the boiling point and started again in the hay-box. 

It must not be expected to do everything, but 
every housekeeper who must depend upon a gas or 
kerosene stove should arrange a fireless cooker for 
economy of fuel and to increase her own comfort. 

Many an American housewife uses both coal and 
gas ranges in her winter home, and in the summer 
cottage must depend upon wood and kerosene stoves. 
Probably during the year she also uses a chafing-dish 
occasionally, and that may derive its heat from alco- 
hol or electricity. Wherever a house is supplied 
with electric lights there should be at least one elec- 
trical cooking appliance. Some exce^ient ones are 
already on the market, and the next generation, doubt- 
less, will use this force in housekeeping as freely as 
we use gas. 

Each of these methods of securing heat for cooking 
may be the best under certain conditions and have 
disadvantages under others. The housekeeper needs 
to be keen in judgment and quick to see in order to 
adapt her formulas of cooker}^ successfully in turn 
to wood, coal, gas, kerosene, gasoline, alcohol or 



335 



158 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

electricity. She must know how to tell when a thing 
is "done," and not trust wholly to the number of 
minutes prescribed in a recipe. 

Women who are called upon to make such rapid 
transitions become adaptable, inventive, and are 
less "set in their ways" in other directions. The 
study of processes of cookery may thus become a 
broadening influence and means of general education. 

CO-OPERATIVE COOKING 

But there are certain household traditions which 
hold many intelligent women in a firm grasp, and 
these traditions may be traced to the generations 
behind us, when no money value was placed upon 
woman's labor. It does not yet seem easy for 
women to count fairly the cost of foods cooked 
under their own roof. Until this can be done there 
is small chance for co-operative industries, which 
might relieve the pressure of home cares where house- 
workers are not readily secured. 

Few families to-day find it wise to make butter 
for themselves, and many would do well to buy 
bread, also. When there is a demand for high-grade 
bread made outside the home, it will be supplied, as 
has been the case here with other commodities, and 
with bread in other countries. There are many 
small towns to-day to which bread is sent from first- 
class bakeries loo to 200 miles away. 

With stronger laws, better enforced for the clean- 
liness and purity of food products; with great^*^ 



336 



KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 1 59 

intelligence on the part of the consumer, and greater 
skill on the part of the producer, there is no reason 
why we should not in the future be able to secure 
wholesome prepared foods of all grades at fair prices 
outside the home, rather than attempt to prepare 
everything under the home roof. 

The isolated home must still be its own factory, 
and its director must be a Jack of all Trades. Such 
households should be supplied with all helps to make 
labor easy, but even tnen, much hard labor is neces- 
sary. Only where large quantities of any product 
are to be prepared does it pay to have all manner of 
machines and cunning devices to produce the most 
perfect results. 

KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 

Where many people are to be fed, a few good tools 
like a bread-mixer (See p. 105), meat-chopper, etc., 
are often more helpful than another pair of hands, 
unless they are especially efficient ones. 

One pupil has asked for a list of necessar}^ kitchen 
furnishings. A good list is given in Household Man- 
agement, page 105. Here is another designed for 
beginners in housekeeping, or for small families living 
in city flats, where there is no room to store super- 
fluous utensils. The stove and refrigerator are usu- 
ally supplied with such apartments. 

For light housekeeping, where a chafing-dish or 
small oil or gas stove is the only means for cooking, 
still fewer utensils would suffice. With the addition 



337 




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338 



KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 



i6i 



of a few fancy molds, all the foods illustrated in this 
book could be prepared by the utensils here men- 
tioned. On page loi some of the most useful are 
shown. 

When selecting any utensil, be sure that it is of. 
good quality, with no imperfections that will inter- 
fere with keeping it perfectly clean. 



KITCHEN F 



High stool 

Scales 

Fibre pail 

Dish pan 

Soap shaker 

Dish mop 

Vegetable brush 

Tea kettle 

Pastry board 

Rolling pin 

Chopping bowl and 

knife 

Bean pot 

Lemon squeezer(glass{ 

Tea pot 

Coffee pot 

Muffin pan, agate waie 

Quart measure 

Pitcher 

Stew kettle and cover. 

Roasting pan 

Sauce pans (three) . . 

Bowls (two) 

Double boiler 

Two quart pans (two) 

Deep plates, to fit pan 

as covers (two) .... 

Cups for moulds (six) 



•50 
.00 

•50 
•50 
. 10 
. 10 
. 10 
. 00 
.40 
. 10 

•50 

•30 
. 10 

•25 
•50 
•50 
•35 
•50 
.00 
■50 
•75 
■50 
■75 
50 

50 
75 



URNISHINGS. 

French knife 

Paring knives (two) . . 

Spatula 

Cork screw 

Can opener 

Measure cups, glass 

and tin 

Wire Q^^ beater 

Dover Qg<g beater 

Fine strainer 

Coarse strainer 

Colander 

Flour sieve 

Wire potato masher. . 

Grater 

Wooden spoons (two) 
Tablespoons (six) .... 

Teaspoons (six) 

Long fork 

Cutters (two) 

Omelet pan 

Loal pans (three) .... 
Cake pans (three) .... 
Cake pans (three) .... 

Scotch bowl 

Glass jars (one dozen). 



•50 
•30 
•30 
•25 
•50 

. 20 
. 10 
. 10 

•05 
. 10 
. 20 
. 20 
. 10 

.JO 

. 20 
. 20 
. 10 
. 10 
. 20 

•25 
.60 

•30 
•30 

•50 
I . 00 



Total $20, 



00 



339 



1 62 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY 

Quite as important as helpful utensils to the house- 
keeper are the right kind of books. 

.When we remember that cooking schools have 
been established for a generation in all our large cities, 
and that the lessons given in such schools have in 
several places been put in book form, and when we 
see the lists of cook-books sent out by publishers, we 
might suppose that every housekeeper in America 
would be the possessor of several reliable cook-books. 
But even the intelligent women taking this course 
are rarely well supplied. 

One pupil honestly states the matter thus: 

"My failures have been many, owing partly to my 
lack of a cook-book. I have overcooked custards, 
and undercooked corn starch. I have stirred and 
beaten all the gas out of pancakes, and wondered why 
they did not rise, etc., etc." 

Many women everywhere are content to depend 
upon cook-books issued by patent medicine venders, 
and upon newspaper clippings liable to typographical 
errors. Such things may afford helpful suggestions, 
but much food-material has been wasted by blind 
following of careless printers, and writers who have 
little knowledge of the art and science of cookery. 

Enterprising business men realize that they must 
read their trade journals to keep abreast of the tide 
of competition. Many a woman spends more than a 
dollar a year for tissue paper patterns for clothing, 



340 



HOUSEKEEPERS LIBRARY 163 

who would hesitate to buy a cook-book once in five 
years, or to subscribe for a reliable household maga- 
zine. 

There has been little cash recompense for the 
housekeeper, however much she studied her trade, 
but now we are beginning to realize that personal 
health and family comfort are above price; that they 
depend chiefly on the air we breathe, the water we 
drink, and the food we eat. 

On page 140 of this hand-book, there is given a 
list of reliable books relating to food and cookery, 
the whole costing about $20. The average American 
housekeeper, especially if she does her own house- 
work, should own at least half of these books. While 
she may not find it feasible to spend more than a 
dollar a year in this way, still she may be sure that 
ten dollars spent in the purchase of helpful books 
would save more than that amount, in a single year, 
in her bills for food materials. 

Any one near a public library has the opportunity 
to read such books, and thus discover which are the 
ones she wishes to own. If the library is not already 
supplied in this direction, send in requests that cer- 
tain books be purchased. (Any of the books will 
be loaned to members by the School). 

The study of this hand-book lays the foundations 
in the fewest words possible for the fundamental 
processes of cookery. As one pupil has expressed it: 
"I have found the lessons wonderfully helpful in 



341 



CARD CATALOG OF FOODS 

classifying and fixing facts in my mind, and I feel 
that I am much better grounded in the principles of 
cookery than I ever should have been by merely 
studying cook-books." 

After such a beginning, each one reading a cook- 
book will instinctively select and add to the founda- 
tion principles, already acquired, such explanatory 
details as are best adapted to her home conditions. 

CARD CATALOG OF FOODS 

The up-to-date housekeeper is ready to accept 
modern ideas and adapt methods from other depart- 
ments of life to her business of housekeeping. She 
finds a card catalogue one of the simplest means for 
keeping addresses, and has another for an inventory 
of her household possessions, and a third for a list of 
foods especially suited to her family. In this list 
each card records not only the name of a food, but 
the approximate beginning and end of its season, its 
average price, the quantity required to serve a given 
number of persons, and several of the best methods 
of using it. Here, also, may be references to certain 
pages of the cook-books in her library. Or the cards 
may have copies of the recipes; such cards should 
have a hole in the top, so that they may be hung up 
in the kitchen within view of the worker. 

When uncertain what to chose for the next day's 
dinner, or for some special occasion, she looks over 
these cards, and several possibilities will be suggested. 
From this plan one naturally comes to the study of 
dietaries and an application of the principles laid 
down in Food and Dietetics. 



342 



COOKING A FINE ART 167 

Among the helps in study along these lines are the 
series of dietary studies which have been issued from 
time to time by the office of Experiment Stations, 
United States Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
ton, D. C. Two of the best to begin with are Bulletin 
28 (Revised), "The Chemical Composition of American 
Food Materials" (5 cents), and Bulletin 129, "Dietary 
Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia; Chicago" 
(10 cents). The latter gives menus for several days at 
different prices, with itemized list of materials used 
and cost of each. 

These may be obtained by sending coin to the Su- 
perintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 

COOKERY A FINE ART 

In cookery, quite as much depends upon the order 
and manner of combining the materials as upon the 
ingredients themselves. The manipulation of the 
cook-stove has something in common with that of 
a musical instrument. It is possible to play by ear 
with little knowledge of scales and chords, or to cook 
without knowing the laws of heat or the chemical 
composition of food materials. 

Or, by continual practice, a single composition 
may be committed to memory and be reproduced in 
a mechanical fashion either upon the piano or on the 
kitchen range. Only after much study and repetition 
of processes does one become able to interpret intel- 
ligently the works of great masters, and the funda- 
mental laws of harmony must be known, before one 



343 




344 



CAKE MAKING 169 

can produce new creations either in music or more 
material things. 

As music appeals to the sense of hearing, so does 
cookery to that of taste. The truest art in cookery 
is not the ability to construct wondrous complica- 
tions of food materials, or to carve roses from beets, 
or model faces in butter, but rather to develop the 
full flavor of a food by the simplest process, to make 
the "mouth water" — that is, to stimulate the flow 
of the digestive juices by savory odors and flavors. 

Brillat Savarin well said that the invention of a 
new dish meant more happiness to the human race 
than the discovery of a constellation, but quite as 
important is the constant preparation of the simple, 
old foods in the very best way • — the baked potato, 
the boiled ^^'g, the broiled steak, etc., etc. 

CAKE MAKING 

The mixing of cake often has more to do with its 
texture than the proportion of materials used, though 
both have their influence. 

It is an interesting experiment to make a good 
cooky dough and bake portions of it with different 
proportions of flour. Take, for example, the familiar 
1-2-3-4 cake formulas and transpose the flour and 
eggs so that we use one cup of butter, two cups of 
sugar, three eggs and four cups of flour. The stiffness 
of this dough will vary with size of the eggs and the 
quality of the flour. Often some liquid and more 
flour are added, making a less rich mixture, and then 



345 



I70 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

some baking-powder or its equivalent will be needed, 
otherwise the creaming of the butter and the eggs 
will bring sufficient air into the dough. 

Even before all the flour is worked in, some of the 
dough may be spread on a tin and cut in shapes after 
baking. When slightly stiffer, bits of the mixture 
may be dropped on the tin, fruit or nuts put over 
them, and they will spread out in dainty little cakes. 

If still more flour is added, but before the dough 
is quite firm enough to use a rolling-pin, small balls 
of the dough may be shaped round with the hands 
and flattened on the pan with the under surface of 
a smooth tin cup. 

A dough in this stage may be chilled, and then 
can be rolled easily, and the resulting cakes will be 
much richer than if more flour had been worked in. 

Deft, experienced hands produce satisfactory results 
with doughs, because they can shape them without 
working in an excessive amount of flour. 

MENU MAKING 

Through the test questions, the attention of our 
pupils has been called to the planning of meals for 
a household, for this is an important part of the house- 
keeper's duties. Under Part I we asked for menus 
introducing as many dishes as feasible containing 
milk and cheese. Such menus would be useful where 
the meat markets were poor and milk abundant, 
since one may thus secure similar nutritive elements, 
and usually at less expense than for meats. 



346 



MENU MAKING 171 

After Part II, the request was made for a menu 
for two days when e^jgs were cheap, and for two days 
more when they were expensive. This was done 
because few housekeepers pay sufficient attention to 
market prices. They get the idea that a certain 
food IS costly, and therefore not to be used at all, 
when, perhaps, a careful comparison of the prices of 
all ingredients would show it to be cheap at some 
seasons. Angel and sponge-cakes, for example, when 
eggs are at their lowest price, are less expensive than 
average butter-cakes. 

With eggs at 25 cents a dozen and butter at 25 
cents a pound, a sponge-cake with five eggs costs no 
more than a cake with two eggs and half a cup of 
butter. If the whites of twice as many eggs are used, 
the actual cost is no greater, since the yolks are avail- 
able for other purposes. 

At the close of the lessons we asked for a week's 
menu from each householder represented, with sug- 
gestions for their improvement, without increase of 
labor or expense. 

The responses show an increased attention to the 
details that count in feeding a family satisfactorily 
to all concerned. 

Yet menu-making is still a great bugbear to many 
pupils, and a few more hints on the subject may be 
helpful. 

Many are hampered seriously by the habits and 
wishes of different members of their households. 



347 



172 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

One young woman writes: "My father demands 
griddle cakes every morning the year round." 

Naturally, with such tastes, it is difficult to intro- 
duce many new dishes, or to secure a very varied 
menu. 

• In the old days of the brick oven, most of the 
necessary cooking for a family was done on one day 
of the week, for the proper heating of that oven could 
not be accomplished hurriedly. 

Now with the gas stove, conditions are very dif- 
ferent, and two or three hours each day should be 
ample time for the actual cookery for an average 
family. But to accomplish everything in these 
limits wise planning is required. Whatever requires 
long cooking for breakfast must be started the pre- 
vious day, and preparation for the dinner or luncheon 
is begun while breakfast is being made ready, and 
so on. 

Many business women keep house in this way, 
and their families are as well fed as those where 
more time is frittered away on petty nothings. It 
is only by application of business methods in our 
kitchens, that the routine in many households can 
be simplified and untangled. 

The preparation of food for an average household 
is not a difficult matter when the manager has 
learned her trade and each individual member is not 
unreasonable in his or her requirements. 

The housekeeper must think out her plan of action 



348 



MENU MAKING 173 

for days in advance and thus save unnecessary dupli- 
cation of processes. 

When one pair of hands must do all the cooking, 
it is a foolish waste of time and strength to cook 
fresh food for the purpose of making composite dishes. 
Let those come occasionally as an easy way of finishing 
up some bits too good to throw away, which have 
already appeared in other forms. For example, it 




Makin;? Timbalc Cases. 

takes no more effort or fuel tc boil twelve potatoes 
than is required to cook six. These may appear 
one day as plain boiled, if we have a roast with a good 
gravy. The next day we are to serve the meat cold 
or perhaps fried fish with no sauce, so the second 
portion of potatoes is cut in cubes or slices and 
reheated in butter, flavored with onion, and sprinkled 
with chopped parsley just before serving, giving 
us Lyonnaise potatoes. Or we might prefer Delmonico 
potatoes and put them in layers in a pudding dish with 



349 




350 



MENU MAKING 175 

a sprinkle of cheese between, pour r^ thin white 
sauce over, cover with buttered crurnbs, and heat 
through in the oven. Or the potatoes may be mashed 
and for a second appearance take the form of a huge 
cone, or apples, or pears for individual service. 

Sometimes in our zeal to use up left-overs, we 
expend much time and strength and more additional 
material than the value of the original article war- 
rants. But if one owns a timbale iron, those fraorile 
shells resulting from frying a batter on it are attractive 
receptacles for a little creamed chicken or a sweet- 
bread. 

Croquettes have their place occasionally, and often 
save the purchase of more meat and thus justify the 
time they require. A garnish of crisp triangles of 
toast around a dish of creamed meat disposes of 
both the scraps of meat and bits of bread — or 
cases may be made of bread and browned in the oven 
and filled with meat. 

The store closet should be kept well stocked, and 
this is less expensive and far easier than buying 
things as needed. One order a week ought to be 
enough for the staple groceries, and two orders a 
week in winter and three in summer for meats, 
fruits, and fresh vegetables. Do not order by tele- 
phone, but at least once each week visit the market 
and make the order according to what is available 
there. 

The time often spent in a daily visit to markets or 



351 




352 



MENU MAKING 177 

a daily call from the store-man can be used to bette. 
advantage in an average home. 

A fair supply of good-grade canned goods should 
be kept in the house for emergencies ; but as a whole 
these are more expensive than fresh cooked meats 
and vegetables; but where fuel is expensive and 
labor high, they may be used more freely. 

Milk should be used generously. Many families 
would do well to double their present milk supply. 
Where milk is abundant and canned vegetables at 
hand, it takes but a few moments to prepare a nour- 
ishing and attractive cream soup of corn, beans, peas, 
or tomatoes. If the top of the milk has been used 
for cereal and coffee, the remainder will be quite as 
satisfactory as whole milk for soups or puddings, 
when butter or other fat is added. 

If our home is at a distance from markets and we 
have an abundance of one type of food material and 
little of others, then it may be necessary for us to 
devise many ways of serving this one, and then we 
must use different forms and flavors that we may 
not tire of the monotonous diet. But when the sea- 
son of any fruit, vegetable, or meat is brief, then we 
need serve it only in its natural form or cooked in the 
simplest manner. 

As the seasons change, cold merging into heat 
and heat into cold again, we let our fires go out, then 
we kindle them, and we decrease and then increase 
our clothing. But few households make a corres- 



353 



178 



rh'/\( in I's oi' i (>(>A /AT 



I" iii(Iiii)',l\ ni.i I I'.cil I li.iii}'/' III tlitii Ittnd, ;i(lapU':^ it 

lit ilic tlillciiiij; ll(•t'(l^; dI ilii- |k)(|\' as (Ik; external 

lfiii|>t'i a I iiic fliail^es. 

All ttl us know phuc.'; wlicic |i»irk and pics ()ctii|iy as 
Ijromiiu'nl a |h»s.i(i(»ii (»ii IIic (ahlcs in July as in )aiiti- 
ar\', lliduv'li llu'ii" litsil viviiij; ((iialitics niak'f M'.cin 
nul ol pkirc III suiiiiiici, i'\'('n il ailuiissibk' ni winlcr. 




;.uin.- \Vav9 o! Sfiviny Oian^jt-s, 

"Porlv and htsms," vvlieit" (lie lal | >icdnniinalt'S, may 
l)e suital'K' liH' midwinter, wink- "Itakcil hcan:;," willi 
a small ammiiil i>l lal he il poik, licci, Imllci" or 

olive ^u\ arc iiol out •>! placi' al an\' ^;casoll. 

Aiiollifi phase ol lliis mailer i.s llic impioxcmcnl 
iii Ikii'i'.iur. appelilc;, wliuli is. ait'omplislied lt\' a 
elian^e m loot!. The eii\ dwelk'rs are (»lleii l>eUer 
olT in llie s.i>rm;.; Iliaii the eountr\' faiiiil\', iMoni 
Ihi' South to the eil\ iiiaikek; eomc vicciisol several 
kiuils, asparaiuis, ktluec, lueuml ua s, awA lade.hes, 
while the eounlr\' garden is slill Imks A small 
I'Uihli ol asparajuis as a jsirmsh around some inex.- 



354 



MENU MAKING 



179 




Lambs Heart with Asparagus. 

pensive meat like lamb or calf hearts will give relish 
when a larger quantity would be an extravagance. 

Those who prepare the food for the family deserve 
a change of labor from season to season, and many 
women in the country would do well to strike from 
pie making and spend the time so saved out of doors. 
It is no harder to care for a strawberry bed than to 




Apricot or Peach Jelly. 



355 



l8o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

wield the rolling pin or bend over a hot stove, and 
strawberries may well be substituted for pies. 

True economy must be practiced in the planning 
of menus and one thing fitted into another so that 
nothing is lost. 

USE OF FATS 

Perhaps there is no one thing more often wasted 
in the average household than fat, yet this is essen- 
tial to our health, and we pay high prices for it in 
cream, olive oil, and butter, when cheaper forms 
might be substituted in some cases. 

The fat trimmed from meats is too often left 
at the market or thrown away after cooking, instead 
of clarifying it according to the directions on page 
73. This, when properly prepared, would be far 
superior to the lard and cooking butter often bought 
for culinary purposes. 

The flank fat from beef, or "cod fat," as some 
market-men call it, is much softer than suet, and, if 
carefully prepared, is to be preferred to cooking- 
butter for making ordinary cookies, gingerbread, 
pastry, etc. This clarified fat usually costs less than 
ten cents a pound, even after the weight of the scraps 
is deducted. 

When a housekeeper has not time to prepare 
such fat, she may buy ttncolored oleomargarine at 
about half the price of table butter, or in the vicinity 
of fifteen cents a pound. (Colored butterine is taxed 
ten cents a pound.) Many preparations of cotton 



356 



TABLE SERVICE i8i 

seed oil are on the market, which are satisfactory 
when fresh for frying and for use in doughs. 

One must use discretion in combining fats for 
different uses. It is not desirable to use smoked 
fat like that from bacon, or highly seasoned fat, such 
as comes from sausages, for frying doughs, but these 
should be kept each by itself and used for warming 
potatoes and other vegetables. 

The hard suet and soft chicken oil clarified together 
give an excellent compound, which may be substi- 
tuted for butter in tomato sauce and some soups, as 
well as in many doughs. 

In the same way all bits of meat and bone should be 
used for stock, alone, or combined with vegetables. 
Where meat is served once or twice daily in a house, 
there is rarely need of buying any especially for soups. 

TABLE SERVICE 

The desirability of careful table service for the 
simplest foods is shown by this incident told by one 
pupil. 

"My aunt had great difficulty in getting us to 
eat cereal for breakfast, so she bought us each a very 
pretty blue bowl. We were allowed to use these 
only when we had cereal for breakfast. The result 
was that we eagerly asked for it every morning and 
now are very fond of the various kinds." 

No one can deny that such attention to details 
is an important part of the housekeeper's duty. 

Where there are no servants, a housekeeper must 



357 



i82 PRINCIPLES OF COiVKF.RV 

1)0 careful that lior efforts for dainty service do 
not involve her in labor beyond her strength. Each 
member of the family should have a part in the table 
service that everything may move smoothly. 

MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 

Every housekeeper occasionally has to plan a 
special menu for home or club or church society, and 
consideration of this matter may be helpful here. 

It is of first importance that we do not undertake 
more than we can carry out well. This applies to 
the choice of the food material, to the number of 
courses, and the way in which they are to be served. 

Instead of sending away for rare luxuries with 
which our guests might be familiar every day, let us 
make the most of the specialties of our own locality. 

The table decorations may take the form or color 
of the season, but beware of special shapes or gar- 
nishes which might cause any deterioration of the 
food to be served. 

Other essential points are to have everything served 
at the proper temperature, to alternate brown and 
white or crisp and soft effects, and to avoid having 
the same article appear in two different courses. 

This cou])let from an old English poet sums U]) the 
whole matter: 

"Three dishes well dressed, and a welcome withal. 

Both please th thy guest, and become th thy hall." 



358 



SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR 
CLASS STUDY ON 

PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

Ample material for a course of six or more lessons may be 
secured from the lesson books on Principles of Cookery 
and from the Government Bulletins. The Farmers ' Bulletins 
may be obtained without charge by writing to the United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. As 
many copies of each will be sent as desired. The bulletins 
for which a price is given may be obtained by sending coin 
to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
The Government will not accept postage stamps. A few 
reference books are mentioned which will be loaned by the 
School for the cost of postage given, if not available in the 
local public library. Any encyclopedia will furnish much 
on every subject, and a book of standard quotations will also 
add to the interest of the meeting. 

All the common daily foods may be studied from the 
historical or literary standpoint, for each has a history and 
literature of its own. Often it is wise to set the practical 
housekeeper to look up the historical side of a food, while 
a philosophical member is required to report upon its prac- 
tical use. Thus each gets a fresh point of view and a new 
interest in an old subject. 

It might prove interesting to arrange for a series of lunches 
to illustrate the foods being studied. Here it is best to 
keep out of the conventional lines and make the menus 
educational. When the class is large, a few may be chosen 
to prepare the lunch for all and directed to keep the expense 
within certain limits, lo to 20 cents apiece, and to give 
a report. Chafing dishes should be provided for each group 
of four to eight and some experimental cookery tried. 

189 



359 



iviiciniN<i I 

(!tlt|t|\' |lll)M'll I }<)) 

Kllliln AIkI AppllrtlK no fni IImWi (hn 

\\'..| I' mI ( Mlllll MlllllI'M'l I'' MMll'ifl 1. |l< III II 1,1 illli'Ct, Nil. I. 

( '||i I . "", I'MmI ((|M> .".< I 
Wot'k ()l M<M|!llllill I'llllllllll Sl>n I'll! \'l |l t|IPl|jllM 

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Al Ullfl. (%>, IMI, (MIRImJ'i I I' I 

Ifll-nlMMM CnitU Ml,uVF», r)ini|.lil. I , |iim(,ijii' ,(i'. Mpn rtho 
Miip|il' nil III I" I 't nh ifth'i ,i) I lUih'if \'. 

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l<'.\ l*f*l{llh III'' I'l'i' |i(t^PM '^1, 5»i». 'I't'^l I III' Wdli'l iiiiilinj/ 

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t^i litiili'ilti}^ I i.'in|n'i (I I III i> iHitJ iili :i'i\i' liiiw mill li It")') Ih'iiI. 

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\\w finiiii 'ininlilv (MflV « t'llii) ill imh li ('flHr«, 

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II Mniliil)' 111 Wrllni ( '11- 1 ^.1, (iii'il (ijM' I >lV) 

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Uil) 



PKOUKAM iQi 

Preserving 

Cmiiunt,' t)l li'ruit, I*rcaervea and Jelliea, Muria Parloa. 

Fannera' HulltiLiii Ni». ao.^, free. 
Improved Method of Canning, in Parniera' BiilUitin No. 263. 
Uae and Almae of Food iVeaervativea. ICxtract No. 23 1, 

Free, DeparlnnMil of .Xgriculhirt', WMHliinghtn, D. <\ 



MliiniNCi II 
(Study pagea .VJ-S4) 
Milk 

Make aour milk cheeae and junket. (vSeu page 44.) 

Show how acid may be uaed with milk witiiout cunlHng. 

(See page 45.) 
References: Farmera' Hulletin No. '43, Facta about Milk; 
N<». 74, Milk as I^'ond; No. ay, Souring of 
Milk and othe^ C'hangea in Milk Producta; 
No, 6.3, Care of Milk on i/ne Farm; N<>. 210, 
The Covered Milk jjuil; No. 337, CMean Milk. 
Milk and ita Producta, by Wing. ($j. 00, 
poatage ioc.) 

Butter 

See experimenta page 50. 

White Sauce: In a dialing diah, or over a amall keroaene or 
gaa burner, make white aauce by threu mcthoda deacribed 
on page 5f. 

To what extent may other leaa expenaive fata be auljati- 
tuted for butter. 

Make white aauce with oleomargarine. 

Have some member make two or three amall cakea from the 
same recipe. In one uae butter, in another (ileomarga- 
rine, in another a mixture of erpjal parta of lard and beef 
auet. Pake all at the aame time and have all conrlitions 
as nearly the aame aa poaaible, vShow reaulta. 



361 



192 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

Topic: French Sauces and their Inventors. See Hand 
Book of Domestic Science, by Wilson, page Cy. 
($i.oo, postage loc.) And other books. 

Rcjcrcnccs: Extract No. 44. Butter Substitutes. 

Sanitary and Economic Cooking, by Mary Ilinman 
Abel. Chapter on Fats and Oils. (40c., postage 

6c.) 
Cheese 

Make and serve Welsh rarebit made from difTercnt recipes. 

using the same kind of cheese, or make two lots by the 

same recipe and method, using two or more grades of cheese. 

See Question 17. 

Exhibit: Show samples of all possible kinds of cheese; 

prices and composition. 
Topic: Ways of using Cheese in Cookery. See Sanitary 

and Economic Cooking and Cook Books. 
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 82. Curd Test in Cheese 
Making; No. 144, The Curing of Cheese; No. 
162, Cheese Prints; No. 202, Manufacture of 
Cottage Cheese; No. 244, The Food Value of 
Cottage Cheese; No. 166, Cheese Making on 
on the Farm. 
Chemistry of Cooking, by Williams; Chapter IX. 
Cheese. ($1.50, postage 2c.) 
(Select answers to Test Questions on Part I and send them 
to the School for correction and report on experiments.) 



MEETING III 

(Study pages 55-82) 
Eggs 

See experiments on cooking of eggs in water, page 57. 
Try similar experiments in "frying" eggs with fat at high 

and low temperature. 
See Question 6. 
Show c^^ mixtures as custards, sponge cakes, etc., cooked 

Jit too high a temperature and the same ingredients cooked 

at correct temperature. 



362 



PROGRAM 193 

References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, Eggs and their Use 
as Food; No. 103, Preserving Eggs; No. 122, 
Flavor of Eggs; No. 262, Color of Eggs. 

Meat, Fish, Fowl 

Sanitary and Economic Cooking, "Methods of Cocking 

Meat," by Mary Hinman Abel. (40c., postage 6c.) 
See Cook Books. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking; 

No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 193, 

Cooking Meat; No. 162, Cooking Meat. 
The Roasting of Beef, by Isabel Bevier. Circular No. 71, 

University of Illinois (postage 2c.). 

Topic: Methods of Cooking Cheap Cuts of Meat in Palatable 
Form. 



MEETING IV 

(vStudy pages 83-97) 
Vegetables 

See experiments, pages 83-84. 
Get up an exhibit of uncommon vegetables. 
Illustrate the eflfect of overcooking vegetables by boiling 

a peeled potato, — one until it is just soft, another until 

it becomes soggy. 

Topic: History of the White Potato. 

References: Farmers' Bulletin No 256, Preparation of 
Vegetables for the Table, by Maria Parloa. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 121, Beans, Peas and 
other Legumes as Food, by Mary Hinman 
Abel; No. 127, Sweet Potatoes; No. 244, 
Cooking Qualities of Potatoes; No. y;^, Losses 
in the Cooking of Vegetables; Extract from 
Year-Book, 1900, Value of Potatoes as Food. 



363 



194 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 

Grains 

History: See "Corn Plant" by Sargent. (75c., postage 6c.) 
Experiment: Cook cereal breakfast food for twenty minutes 
as directed. Start another portion the night before and 
cook for two hours, heating before serving. Compare 
results. 
References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 249, Cereal Breakfast 
Foods; Extract 324, Wheat Flour and Bread; 
Extract 326, Macaroni Wheat. 
The Cooking of Starch in Cereals, Extract No. 7, 
Illinois Experiment Station. (Postage 2c ) 
(Select and send answers to Test Questions on Part II.) 



MEETING \ 

(Study pages 99-122) 

Bread 

Demonstration: Illustrate proportion of flour and liquid 
for (i) Batters, (2) Muffin Mixtures, (3) Soft Dough, 
(4) Pastry Dough. See pages 99 - 100. 

See experiments with Leavening Agents, page 108. 

If members are in the habit of making their own bread, 

hold a bread contest, appointing judges to grade the bread 

according to the chart designed by Professor Isabel 

Bevier for the Illinois Domestic Science Association, viz. 

Flavor 35 

Lightness 15 

Grain and Texture 20 

Crust — 
Color 
Depth [• 10 

Texture 
Crumb — 
Color 



Moisture '' 

Shape and Size J_o 

100 
Size of pan recommended, 7^ x 3J x 2| inches. 



364 



PROGRAM 195 

Pastry and Cake: Illustrate the difference between bread 
and pastry flour by making two cakes exactly alike and 
baking at the same time. 

Illustrate the effect of a quick and a slow oven on the same 
dough. 

Topic: Use of thermometers. 

Bread: Quotations from prose and poetry by members. 

References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 112, Bread and the 
Principles of 3read Making; No. 114, Skim 
Milk in Bread Making. 

Story of a Grain of Wheat, by W. C. Edge. ($1.00, postage 

IOC.) 

MEETING VI 

(Study pages 122-138) 
Food and its Appeal to the Senses 

The importance of flavor, etc., as an aid to digestion: See 
The Work of the Digestive Glands, by Pawlow, the 
"Psychic or Appetite Juices." ($2. 00, postage i6c.) 
Also Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Pages 396-397. 
($3.00, postage 26c.) 
Cut illustration of cooked food from magazine to be discussed 

and criticised by members. 
Topics: The Use and Abuse of Garnish in Food. 

Harmony in Colors, Flavors and Odors in our 

Foods. 
Salads. 

Use of Left-overs. 
Menus 

See Supplement. 
Menus for a week: Have each member give her method of 

planning meals. 
Menus for Social Occasions. 

Topics: Economy of Time and Strength in Cooking. 
Is Hospitality a Lost Art. 
Serving by different Methods. Illustrated 



365 




(IVlilNDIlK rVlM': I'llUa.ESS COOkhlli 



-1 




HENCll rVIMO IMICIOI.IOSS COOKIlll 

Tho "(Caloric," Alimiinoid Lined \\\{\\ Aluminum I^lonsils. 'IMit 
iilutiiiiiiim ulnisils with cliimiHvl coxrrs ciiii lu^ piucliastHl sopariitoly 
for hoiiu- niii(lt« cnokt'i's. 



366 



FREEHAND COOKING 

THE purpose of this Bulletin is to ta])iilatc the material 
in Principles of Cookery and^to give the eompara- 
tively few fundamental recipes in cooking which are 
capahle of inlniite variation. 

Exact proportions, conditions, and materials are essen- 
tial to ohtain identical results in cooking, but materials vary 
somewhat and conditions differ, so that it is often necessary 
to modify a recipe. I>y "free hand cooking" is not meant 
hit or miss cooking, or cooking by guess, but the compound- 
ing of food materials on scientific ]:)rinciples — not following 
])lindly l)y "rule of thumb" recipes which may have been 
made for different conditions. 

WEIGHTS AND MEASUHES. 

3 teaspoons— 1 tahlcspoon 2 i)ints=l quart 
10 tablespoons=l cup 4 quarts=l gallon 

2 cups^^l pint 1 cu])— 8 ounces (volume) 

A gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds — a cup of water, 8 1/3 
ounces (avoirdupois). A gallon contains 231 cubic inches. 

All materials are measured level, i. e., by filling cup or spoon 
more than full and leveling with a case knife. This applies to 
liquids which "round up" in spoons. Flour, meal, and line sugar 
are measured after sifting. Measuring cups are not always accu- 
rate and ordinary tea and tablespoons vary considerably. 
Test sf^ooiis icilli each other and ivitli the eup before using. 

APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF ONE POUND. 
2 cups milk 2 5/6 cups granulated cornmeal 

2 cups butter 2 2/3 cups oatmeal 

2 cups chopped meat 6 cups -rolled oats 

2 cups granulated sugar 4 1/3 cups rye meal 

2 2/3 cups brown sugar 1% cups rice 

2 2/3 cups powdered sugar 2 1/3 cups dry beans 

3^ cups confectioners' sugar 4 1/3 cups coft'ee 

4 cups patent flour 8 large eggs 

4 cups entire wheat flour 9 medium eggs 

4^2 cups Graham flour 10 small eggs 

Ni>te. — Read "tabIes|)oons" in place of cups in the above and the 
weight is about 1 ounce. 

C(ip3Ti;^li( ^'.)\i), by Aiii('ri<"in .S. Ikh.] (u" \\^^\\\^• lOidiiniiilcs. 



367 



No table of weights to measure can be more than ap- 
proximate, as different samples vary in weight for bulk. 
In truly scientific cookery quantities should be measured 
by weight. The table is useful for comparison, i. e., pow- 
dered sugar is more bulky than granulated and less so than 
confectioners', hence the greater sweetening power of gran- 
ulated; ordinary white flour (sifted) is less bulky than 
graham flour, and so on. 

Experiments have shown that there may be a difference 
of 25 per cent in the weight of a *'cup of flour" measured 
by different persons in different ways. One method is to 
sift the flour onto a square of glazed paper (or oil cloth) 
and pour it into the cup placed on another piece of paper — 
tap the side of the cup once with a knife and level. 

METHODS OF APPLYING HEAT 

Broiling — Cooking before or over glowing coals or under gas. Ea- 
diant heat. High temperature at first to sear outside, thus devel- 
oping flavor and retaining juices; then lower temperature for the 
heat to penetrate and to avoid burning. 

Pan Broiling — Cooking on very hot griddle with only sufficient fat 
to prevent sticking. 

Eoasting — Same as broiling, superseded by baking in oven. 

Baking — Cooking in oven by heated air and radiation. 
Slow oven, 270°— 350° F. 
Moderate oven, 350°— 400° F. 
Quick oven, 400°— 480° F. 

(These temperatures were taken by a thermometer through the 
top of a gas stove oven). 

Boiling — Cooking in boiling water, 212° F. 

Stewing — Cooking in water at temperature 160° to 180° F. 

Steaming — Cooking in contact with steam, 212° F. 

Dry Steaming, as in a ctouble boiler, 192° F. 

Frying — Cooking by immersion in deep fat, approximately 360° F. 
for uncooked foods, 380° F. for cooked foods. The fat used: all 
lard, 2/3 lard and 1/3 bef suet, "cod fat" from the flank of 
beef', oil, ' ' snowdrift, " " cottolene ' ' and mixtures. Tempera- 
tures vary to produce similar effects with different fats. 

Saute-ing — Cooking in small quantity of fat — often called frying. 

Braising — Combination of stewing and baking. Meat is often first 
seared to develop flavor and prevent escape of juices. 

Fricasseeing — Combination of sauteing and stewing. 

4 



368 



COMPOSITION OF RAW FOODS 

Parts in 100 (approximate). 
Wheat Flour — 12 water, 12 gluten, 75 starch, 1 fat. 
Cornmeal — 12 water, 9 protein, 75 starch, 2 fat. 
Beans and Peas, dry — 13 water, 24 legumen, 60 starch, 2 fat. 
Potato, white — 78 water, 2 protein, 18 starch, trace of fat. 
Parsnips, Carrots, Turnips — 85 water, 1 proteid substance, 9 — 12 

starch and sugar, i/4 fat. 
Banana — 75 water, 1 protein, 22 sugar and starch, i/^ fat. 
Loin of Beef (avg.) — 60 water, 18 protein, 20 fat. 
Eggs — 74 water, 13 albumen, 10 fat. 
Egg, white — 86 water, 12 albumen, no fat. 
Egg, yolk — 50 water, 16 albumen, 33 fat. 
Milk — 87 water, 3 casein, 5 sugar, 4 fat. 
Cheese — 33 water, 26 casein, 33 fat. 
Nuts — 3 water, 20 protein, 15 starch, 55 fat. 
Butter — 12 water, 1 protein, 85 fat. 
Lard, Olive Oil— 100 fat. 

All the above foods except refined fats, sugar and starch, contain 
from 1/^ per cent to 1 per cent of mineral matter (salts), apparput 
when the foods are burned as ash. Butter and cheese have 2 per cent 
or 3 per cent of common salt added. 

Protein foods are eggs, meats, fish, cheese. 

Starchy foods are the grains — wheat, rice, rye, oats, corn, 
etc., beans, peas, potatoes, chestnut. 

Fats are prominent in fat meats, nuts, cream, butter, lard, 
vegetable oils. 

Celhilose or woody fiber is found in vegetables, un- 
screened flours and meals, and in fruits, especially when 
unripe. 

EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD MATERIALS 

Starch absorbs water, swells and becomes partially soluble 
in water. This begins at about 150 degrees F. Dry 
-.starch begins to change to dextrine at about 320 de- 
grees F. 

Sugar is not changed at low temperatures unless acid is 
present. It melts at about 365 degrees and begins to 
caramelize at about 420 degrees F. Sugar, boiled with 
acid, changes slowly to glucose or non-crystallizing 
sugar. 

Cellulose itself is not affected by cooking, but the con- 
necting substances are softened and it may be sepa- 
rated. 



369 



Protein foods are hardened somewhat by Vieat. Albumen 
coagulates completely at i6o degrees F. and will no 
longer dissolve in water. Other proteins, as gluten 
of flour, casein of milk, liginnen of peas and beans, 
myosin of meat, are hardened somewhat. 

Gelatin is formed from gristle and connecting tissue of 
meat, and from bones, by long continued heating in 
the presence of water. 

Fat is not changed except at a high temperature, when it is 
broken apart — "split" — into fatty acid and glycerine. 
Some of the glycerine is changed into ^'acrolein" at 
very high temperatures, 500° and over, which is very 
irritating to the mucous membrane, as is recognized by 
the smarting sensation given to the eyes and nose when 
fats are overheated. Butter begins to ''split" at about 
256° F., lard at 360° F., beef suet at 440° F., cottolene 
and snow drift at 450° F., especially prepared cotton- 
seed oil and olive oil at 600° F. 
Baking Powder, a mixture of cooking soda and an acid 
substance, as cream of tartar, or phosphates, or alum, 
undergoes chemical change, whereby carbon dioxide 
is set free and salts — as Rochelle salts, or phosphate, 
or alumina compounds — are formed. The heat of the 
oven expands the air or gas in the food, evaporates 
part of the water and drives out volatile substances 
like alcohol. 
All these changes are, for the most part, physical rather 
than chemical in their nature. For example, in a cake after 
leaking, the sugar is still sugar, the starcn is still starch, the 
fat IS still fat, and the albumen is still albumen. All the 
materials have been blended, flavors having been developed 
through minor but complex chemical chancres and a small 
proportion of the starch and sugar m the crust have been 
changed to dextrin and caramel. 

TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING 

All food materials are poor conductors of heat — it takes 
time for the heat to penetrate. 

The correct time and tcp'>pcrature depends on (i) what 

6 



370 



is to be accomplished, (2) size and thicknesses, i. e., the 
extent of surface exposed to the heat, compared to the bulk. 

Foods with a large proportion of eggs require low tem- 
perature to prevent toughening. 

Starch requires nearly the temperature of boiling water 
for cookmg. 

No food containing much water can be raised to a tem- 
perature above the boiling point— 212 degrees F. Water 
^ives off vapor at all ten^peratu^'es, but at 212 degrees F. 
steam forms rapidly and in so doing absorbs a large quan- 
tity of heat. No brown crust can be formed until the wa- 
ter from the surface is nearly all evaporated. A full oven 
in which much water vapor is being given off requires the 
application of more heat than wlien only one or two dishes 
are in it. 

In baking doughs, the larger the mass the lower must be 
the temperature in order that the heat may have time to 
penetrate to the interior and expand the gas and harden 
the albumen and gluten. If the temperature is too high 
at first, a crust forms, preventing the proper expansion of 
the loaf and hindering the penetration of the heat. 

Thin loaves, pieces of meat, etc., need much less time for 
cooking, because the heat penetrates quickly. Higher tem- 
peratures may be used, as the food is cooked before the 
surface begins to be burned. 

Mixtures containing much sugar or molasses burn easily. 

Vegetables containing much fiber need long boiling to 
soften them and separate the cellulose. Young, green vege- 
tables contain less fiber and require less time in cooking. 

Bearing all the above in mind, the following tables may 
serve as a general guide for beginners. When it is possible 
to do so, TEST. 



371 



TIME TABLE. 

Boiling 15a king 

Meals (4 to 5 lbs.) — 2 to r» liours. Bcof rib (niediiiin, I lbs.) — 1 hour, 

(Tougi\ ini'iils slioulil br kept If) miii. 

bolow boilin;;'. 1S(»' F.) Hcd' I'ib ( iiK-dium, S ll)s. )— l] hDurs, 

Fish (li to n lbs.) — ibi to If) mill- 15 niin. 

utes. LcH' of lamb — 1 liour, 15 o mlmilt'S. 

Ham (12 to M lbs.) — 1 to 5 Porlt (rib)— 3 to 4 hours. 

hours. Veal (!<«) — 3 to 4 hours. 

Corned IVh'at ( (J to 8 Ib.s.) — 4 to C Chitkcu (2 to 4 lbs.) — 1 to 1 1/3 

liours. hours. 

Potatoes, v/liit< — 20 to 30 min- Turkey (S to 30 lbs.) — 2 to 3 

utes. hours. 
Potatoes, swcH't — 15 to 25 min- l-'isii ( ;'. to 4 lbs.) — 15 to (!o min- 
utes, utes. 
Peas, green — 20 to GO minutes. Braisi'd beef — 4 to 5 hours. 
Beans, string — y^ to 1 hour. Bread, white — 45 to CO min. do- 
Beets, young — 45 minutes. pending on shape of loaf. 
Beets, old — 3 or 4 houi s. Bread, Graham — 35 to 45 min- 
Onions — 40 to GO minutes. utes. 

Cauliflower — 20 to 25 minutes. (^uick Doughs — 8 to 15 ininnles. 

Cabbage, eut up — 20 to 25 min- Cookies — 8 to 10 minvites. 

utes. Cake, thin — 15 to 30 minutes. 

Turnips, parsnips — 30 to 45 min- Cake, loaf — 40 to 60 minutes. 

utes. Pudding, Indian, etc. — •:'> hours or 

Carrots — 1 hour ; less if young. more. 

Green corn — 8 to 15 minutes. Bread Pudding — 20 to 4 5 min.. 

Spinach — 15 to 20 minutes. depending on sha]H' and muu- 

Squash — 20 to 30 minutes. ber of eggs. 

Asparagus — 20 to 30 minutes. IMes — 30 to 45 minutes. 

Diced Vegetables — 10 to 20 min- Senlloped Dishes — 15 to 20 miu. 

utes. Baked Beans — 12 hours or longer. 

OVEN TEMPERATURES. 

Entrr at Keep at 

Roast Meats 480° F. 350" F. 

Fish 425° F. 350° F. 

Bread 440° F. 400° V. 

Popovers 480° 1^ 450° ¥. 

Cookies, Puff Pa.stc 480° F. 450° F. 

Quick Dou^lis 480° \\ 480^^ V. 

Ginger liread and Molasses Mixture 380° \\ 380° V. 

Pkiin Cake 380° F. 380° F. 

Sponge Cake 350° V. 340° 1'. 

Baked Custard 350° V. lliglier in water 

Those tomperaturc^s ar(> i'or gas ovcmis, with th(?rniometer through 
the top. An o\en door * Mherinostat " sliouhl register from .10° to 
70° h'ss. Pew oi" these are accurate in tlieir readings, but after being 
tested a few times they are useful in obtaining desired temperatures 
tlioieafter. 

8 



372 



In addition to the methods of processes of applying heat, 
there are a few fundamental processes in cooking, i. e., 
thickening, leavening, shortening and flavoring. 

THICKENING AGENTS 

The common thickening agents are flour, corn starch, 
rice flour, potato flour, arrow root, eggs ; also gelatin, sea 
moss, junket for milk, and pectin of unripe fruits stiffen 
liquids on cooling. 

Proportions 

One level tablespoon of flour will thicken one cup of 
liquid for soups. 

Two level tablespoons of flour will thicken one cup of 
drippings or other liquid for gravies and sauces. 

Five level tablespoons of browned flour will thicken one 
cup of liquid for gravy. 

The thickening power of corn starch is about twice that 
of flour. 

Four level tablespoons of corn starch will stiffen about 
one pint of liquid, as in corn starch pudding. 

Two good sized eggs to one pint of milk make a custard — 
one tgg to a cup for soft custard or baked cup custard ; 
three eggs to a pint of milk for a large mold custard. 

One level tablespoon of granulated gelatin will stiffen 
about one pint of liquid, if cooled on ice. 

LEAVENING AGENTS 

Doughs are made light or porous in the following ways : 

(a) By the production (and expansion by heat) of car- 

bon dioxide gas from the combination of baking 
soda with some acid substance. 

(b) From carbon dioxide gas produced by the growth 

of yeast — a microscopic plant. 

(c) From the expansion of entangled air, incorporated 

in the dough by means of ( i ) beating batters ; 
(2) folding thick doughs; (3) beating air into 
eggs, especially the whites — then folding them 
into the mixture, 
(d) From the expansion of water to steam. 



373 



Proportions 

Use two level teaspoons baking powder to one cup of 
flour. 

Use one teaspoon less of baking powder for each egg 
added after two have been used. 

Use one-half teaspoon soda with one and a quarter tea- 
spoon cream of tartar. 

Use one-half teaspoon soda with one cup sour milk. 

Use one-half teaspoon soda with one-half cup molasses. 

Two teaspoons baking powder are equivalent to one-half 
teaspoon soda in the above combinations. 

The yeast plant grows best at 75 to 90 degrees F. It 
changes sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. Flour 
contains a small proportion of sugar and during bread mak- 
ing some of the starch is changed into sugar, but the yeast 
begins to act more quickly if a little sugar or glucose is 
added at first. Salt and fats in quantity hinder the growth 
of the yeast. Low temperatures stop the growth almost 
completely ; high temperatures kill the plant. 

When eggs are used as leavening agents, the whites are 
beaten separately, as they will hold much more air than 
the yolks, and folded into the mixture the last thing, break- 
ing as few air cells as possible. 

\Mien air is depended on for leavening agent, all mate- 
rials are kept as cold as possible. Cold air expands more 
on heating than warm air. In pastry making, heat also 
melts the fat, so that the dough cannot be handled. 

SHORTENING 

Fats are added to doughs to make the product brittle — 
friable — "short," and to enrich the mixture. The fat coun- 
teracts the adhesive properties of the gluten and starch 
in flour. 

Pastry flours contain less gluten than In-cad tlmu-s and 
so require less shortening. 

r.utter and oleomargarine contain about one-eighth water 
and salt, and thus have less shortening powers than lard, 
drippings, snowdrift, cnttolene, etc., which contain no water. 

Proportions 

Two cups of flour (eight ounces) made into puff paste 
requires eight ounces (one cup) of shortening. 

10 



374 



Two cups of flour in ordinary pie crust requires four 
ounces (one-half cup) of shortening. 

Two cups of ilonr in cookies requires four ounces (one- 
half cup) of shortening, or less. 

Two cups of flour in cake requires about three ounces of 
shortening. 

Two cups of flour in short cake requires two ounces (one- 
fourth cup) of shortening, or more. 

Two cups of flour in tea biscuits requires one-half to one 
ounce (one to two tablespoons) or more of shortening. 

In yeast doughs less shortening is used — from one-half 
to an ounce to two cups of flour. The tenacity of the 
gluten is required to hold the carbon dioxide gas slowly 
formed by the yeast, hence too much shortening prevents 
proper rising. 

Shortening for batters may be melted and mixed in, but 
in doughs which are to be rolled — pastry, cookies, short 
cake, biscuit, etc. — the fat should be cold and hard and cut 
into the flour with a knife, or rubbed in with the tips of the 
fingers. 

FLAVORING 

The flavoring materials most commonly used are salt, 
sugar, spices and extracts. The fine art of cookery con- 
sists of developing the full natural flavor of the foods them- 
selves and in combining them in pleasing ways. 

The amount of salt to be used depends, in general, on the 
total volume of the food. When food tastes salty, too much 
has been used. A safe proportion is one teaspoon salt to 
one quart of liquid in soups, sauces, or to one quart of 
flour in doughs, and for cereals one teaspoon to each pint 
of water used. When the fl"avors are delicate, somewhat 
less salt is used, and with strong flavors, somewhat more. 
Cakes in which much salt butter is used do not need more 
salt. 

The quantity of sugar to be used depends on the taste 
desired. Foods served frozen need more sweetening than 
when at ordinary temperatures. On the other hand, foods 
that are served warm taste somew^hat sweeter than when at 
ordinary temperature. 

II 



375 



RECIPES 

The following recipes were furnx, hed by Miss Anna Barrows, 
teacher of cookery, Columbia Universuy, author of Principles of 
Coolcery, or adapted by the editor from the various standard recipes 
used in cooking schools: 

WATER: EXTRACTING FLAVOR. 
Tea. 

Heat an earthenware teapot with hot water. Empty it 
and put in one teaspoon of tea for each measuring cup of 
fresh boiling water. Let it stand in a warm place two or 
three minutes. Strain and serve at once. If the tea boils or 
stands too long with the leaves it is unfit to drink. 

Coffee. 

Use one-fourth cup of cofifee for one pint of water. 
Place fine ground coiTee in strainer in the coffee pot ; add 
actually boiling water slozvly, a spoonful or two at a time. 
Cover between additions Pour through a second time if 
desired stronger. 

Or: Mix one-fourth cap coffee and one teaspoon beaten 
^gg with a little cold water, add the remainder of one pint 
of water boiling hot. Let it boil up, pour from the spout 
and turn back into the pot and leave for ten minutes where 
it will keep hot but not boil. 

Stock. 

Stock is the basis for all soups, except milk or cream 
soups, to which it is sometimes added. From a pint to a 
quart of cold salted water is used to each pound of meat 
and bone, both of which should be in small pieces. Let 
stand one hour, heat slowly and simmer gently for four 
hours or more, strain and cool quickly. Remove the hard- 
ened fat before using. About a cup of mixed vegetables — 
carrot, onion, parsley, celery, etc. — may be added during 
the last hour. Mixed herbs and spices, as bay-leaf, blade of 
mace, two or three cloves and pepper corns, may be tied 
in cheese cloth and removed from the liquor when sufficient 
flavor has been extracted. 



12 



376 



Bouillon — usually made from beef with little bone and 
no vegetables. Brown Stock — some of the meat and a part 
of the ve2:etables brow^ied in hot fat or marrow. White 
Stock — made from chicken, veal, or fish; no flavoring 
which gives color added. Macaroni, Vermicelli, Noodle, 
Rice, Barley Soup and the like — cook about one-fourth 
cup of dry material until tender and add a quart of hot 
stock, or use cooked left-overs. Julienne Soup — one-half 
cup mixed cooked vegetables cut in cubes, strips or fancy 
shapes, to one quart of stock. 

RESTORING WATER. 

Dried Fruits and Vegetables. 

Pick over, cover w^ith cold water, leave for half an hour, 
then wash thoroughly, inspecting each portion and drain. 
Again cover with cold water and soak 12 to 24 hours, and 
then cook slowly until tender. Add sugar if desired for sauce 
when nearly done, or use like fresh fruit for pies, short- 
cake, etc. 

Prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, pears and vegetables 
are treated in this way. 

THICKENING. 
Sauces. 

Methods of mixing: (i) Melt butter (or other fat) in 
saucepan, stir in dry flour, cook and stir until frothy all 
over, then add liquid slowly, hot or cold, while stirring ; 
cook again until thick, stirring until smooth. 

(2) Rub butter and flour together and stir into the warm 
liquid in a double boiler, then cook and stir until thick and 
smooth. 

(3) When cream or less butter is used, rub the flour 
smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the remain- 
der, which should be hot, and cook in double boiler until 
smooth. Then add butter and seasoning. 

Thin Sauce: One level tablespoon fat, one tablespoon 
flour and one cup liquid, one-fourtl] teaspoon salt, few grains 
pepper (white). 

Suitable for creamed potatoes, macaroni, toast, etc. 

13 



377 



Medium Saucp:: Two tablespoons fat, two tablespoons 
flour and one cup of liquid. Seasoning. 
For general use with fish and vegetables. 

Thick Sauck: Two to four tablespoons of fat and three 
or four of flour for each cup of liquid, either milk or milk 
and stock. 

This is the basis of souflles and croquettes. 

White Sauce may be varied by different flavors and gar- 
nishes, such as capers, celery, mushrooms, oysters, lobsters, 
etc., etc. 

Tomato for the liquid in sauce may be seasoned with 
onion, herbs and spices, by cooking them with it for a short 
time before straining. 

Spanish Sauce is tomato sauce with the addition of 
onion and peppers. 

Dutch or Hollandaise Sauce: To one cup white or 
milk sauce add one or two beaten egg yolks and cook in 
double boiler like custard. Flavor wath one tablespoon lemon 
juice. 

Brown Sauce for Roast or Pan Broiled Meats: After 
placing the meat on the platter drain out any fat in the pan 
and put some water to soak off the browned juice and flour. 

For each cup of gravy put two tablespoons of the fat in 
a saucepan and brown two tablespoons of flour in it; then 
add one cup of the water from the pan. Cook like white 
sauce. Season as desired with salt and pepper. 

Or, ]\Ielt and brown two tablespoons of butter in a sauce- 
pan ; add two or three tablespoons of flour and continue 
the brownin::^-. When coffee color, add one cup water or 
stock or milk. 

Welsh Rarebit. 

Heat one-half cup of cream in the blazier of a chafing dish 
or in a skillet, add one tablespoon of butter creamed w^ith one 
teaspoon of corn-starch, one-fourth teaspoon of salt, and a 
few grains of cayenne. When thick, set over the hot water 
or heat very slowly and add one-half pound of soft mild 
cheese cut up fine and one-half teaspoon of mushroom ket- 

14 



378 



chup or Worcestershire sauce or one-fourth teaspoon of 
mustard. Stir until the cheese is melted and pour over crack- 
ers or thin toast. 

Cream Soups. 

Cook the vegetable till soft and rub through a strainer, 
using all or a part of the water in which the vegetable is 
cooked, except with potatoes. Combine with an equal quan- 
tity of white sauce or white stock or mixture of the two.' 
Season. If too thick, add hot milk. Beaten egg may be 
added just before serving if too thin. 

Asparagus, Carrots, Cauliflower, Celery, Corn, Cucum- 
bers, Lettuce, Mushrooms, Onions, Spinach, Summer 
Squash, Turnips, Water Cress. 

Cream of Peas. Beans, Lentil, Potato and other thick 
soups have half quantity or less of white sauce added to 
keep the materials from settling. 

Cream of Chicken, Fish, etc., made of stock from bone, 
skin and other inedible portions combined with about equal 
quantities of hot white sauce seasoned in various ways. 

Corn Starch Blanc Mange. 

Blend two tablespoons cornstarch with an equal bulk of 
milk, heat remainder of one cup milk in double boiler. Stir 
the hot milk into the moistened starch, return to double 
boiler, stir on stove till thick, put over water, cover and 
cook twenty to thirty minutes or longer. Add two table- 
spoons sugar, a bit of salt, flavor and put in moulds. 

Variations : For liquid use part thin cream and part 
strong coffee, or all fruit juice. 

Put layers of raw or cooked fruit alternately with the 
blanc mange in the moulds. 

Blend two tablespoons of cocoa with the sugar before it 
is added to the cornstarch mixture. 

Irish Moss Blanc Mange. 

To soften the moss, soak one-half cup in cold water, wash 
pick over and cook in one pint of water in a double boiler 
for about half an hour. Strain and make up to a quart with 
scalded rich milk or thin cream ; add a teaspoon of extract 

15 



379 



flavoring and one-fourth teaspoon of salt. Or cook the 
softened moss directly in one quart of milk, season and 
strain. Put in molds. 

Use of Gelatine. 

One level tablespoon granulated gelatine will stiffen about 
one pint liquid. Different makes of sheet, shredded, granu- 
lated and powdered gelatine may be used interchangeably 
by weight. A larger proportion of gelatine is required for 
large moulds than for small. A little salt improves most 
gelatine combinations. 

Soak gelatine in cold water until soft, dissolve by adding 
boiling liquid, sweeten and flavor with coffee, lemon, or 
other fruit juices and pulp. Keep the proportions of gelatine 
and total liquid right. A little more gelatine is required in 
hot weather, unless ice is used. 

Such jellies may be served with whipped cream or boiled 
custard. Every package of gelatine is accompanied with 
directions for its use. 

Fruit Pudding. 

Make a jelly flavored with fruit juice, slightly increasing 
the proportion of gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, combine 
nearly an equal amount of fruit with it. With each half 
cup of jelly may be used one date, one-half fig, two or three 
almonds, one-fourth orange, one-fourth banana, etc. 

Snow Pudding or Fruit Sponge. 

Beat one Qgg stiff' and add one cup half stiffened jelly 
gradually. Or, beat the jelly till frothing and blend the 
stiff egg with that. Mould and chill. Serve with soft cus- 
tard sauce made of the Qgg yolks. 

Bavarian Cream. 

Stiffen a soft custard, or fruit juice, or combination of 
the two, with gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, fold in stiff 
whipped cream. 

Baked Custards. 

Scald one pint milk. Beat two eggs till smooth, add 
one-fourth cup sugar, a bit of salt, and blend with the hot 
milk. Strain into buttered molds, set in a pan of hot water 

16 



380 



and bake, until firm. Put a thin knife blade in center of 
custard and if done no milk will adhere to the blade as it 
is removed. 

The same proportions may be used for custard pies, or 
may be combined with cooked rice for a pudding. 

Soft Custard. 

Use the same proportions as for baked custards, or three 
egg yolks in place of two whole eggs. Pour hot miik over 
the beaten eggs, stirring constantly. Sugar may be added 
before or after cooking the custard. 

Return milk and tgg to the double boiler and cook, 
stirring all the time until the custard thickens and coats the 
spoon, three minutes or longer. If cooked too long the 
custard will curdle. Cool quickly. Flavor before serving. 

Egg Timbals. 

Use only one-fourth to one-half cup liquid, milk or stock, 
for each egg. Flavor with salt, pepper, etc. Cook like 
custards, turn from mold and serve hot with tomato sauce. 

Thickened Custards. 

Filling for Cream Pufifs, Layer Cake, Sauces, Ices, etc. 

Make a smooth paste with one- fourth cup flour and a 
little milk and scald the remainder of one pint of milk. 
When it is hot, blend carefully with the flour and cook in 
a double boiler twenty minutes or more. Then combine 
with the beaten yolks of two or three eggs and stir steadily 
while cooking three to five minutes longer. Take from the 
fire and sweeten and flavor according to its use. For 
filling for a layer cake one-fourth cup sugar may serve, 
while for cream puffs one-half cup or more will be needed. 

The sanie foundation may be combined with an equal 
quantity of cream or of fruit juice, or of each, made very 
sweet and frozen as ice cream. 

Frozen Desserts — General Directions. 

All mixtures must be sweeter and more highly flavored 
than if served without freezing. Cool thoroughly before 
packing in ice and salt. Use three measures fine cracked 
ice to one measure of salt. 

17 



381 



Lemon Ice. 

Mix in proportion of the juice of one lemon, one-fourth 
cup of sugar and one cup of water. Or, make a quantity 
of syrup, 4 measures of sugar to 2 of water, and use 4 
measures of syrup to i of fruit juice. Strain into a tin can 
or straight glass jar with a close cover. Pack this in a 
pail or pan with ice (or snow) and salt. Turn the can 
around and occasionally scrape down the ice which forms 
inside. Use other fruit juices in the same way — orange, 
pineapple, raspberry — to which lemon juice is usually added, 
grape juice or acid jelly. 

Pineapple Sherbet. 

One can of grated pineapple, one cup of sugar, juice of 
two lemons, one tablespoon of powdered gelatine, one quart 
of water or milk. 

Ice Cream. 

Scald thin cream in double boiler, dissolve sugar in 
the proportion of one cup to a quart, add flavoring w^ieu 
cool — extract, one tablespoon to a quart. This is "Phila- 
delphia" ice cream. Thickened custard made very sweet 
and highly flavored is often called "New York" ice cream. 

Mousse or Parfait. 

Mix together one cup thick cream, two tablespoons pow- 
dered sugar and flavoring. Whip cream with Qgg beater, 
skimming off froth as it rises and draining on a sieve. 
Return liquid to bowl and whip until no more froth will 
rise. Turn drained froth into a mould ; cover, and bind the 
lid with a strip of muslin dipped into melted fat. Bury in 
ice and salt for three to four hours before serving. 

Junket. 

The active principle in junket is rennin or ''rennet," which 
is extracted from the lining of calf's stomach. This will 
coagulate or thicken warm milk but nothing else. Its prop- 
erties are destroyed at the boiling temperature and it has 
no action in the cold. ITcat two cups of milk to body tem- 
perature, 90 degrees, ])owdcr junket tablet and dissolve in 
a little water, add one-third cup of sugar dissolved in one- 

18 



382 



third cup of warm water and flavoring extract. Pour into 
serving dishes and keep warm until set. Cool. 

Caramel syrup or maple syrup may be used in place of 
sugar. Chocolate may be added or beaten egg yolks with 
beaten whites on top. 

Jellies. 

Pectin is the gelatinizing agent in jellies and jams. It is 
a substance similar to starch and is found in most fruits 
and some vegetables. It is most abundant when fruit is just 
ripe or nearly so. The making of good jelly depends on 
having the correci proportion of fruit juice, sugar, and 
acid and on boiling. The density of the mixture should 
be between 24 degrees and 30 degrees as measured by the 
syrup gage at the boiling temperature, and the boiling 
point 217 degrees F. or 103 degrees C. Long boiling alters 
the gelatinizing properties of pectin. Too great a propor- 
tion of sugar and violent boiling cause the sugar to crys- 
tallize in the jelly. 

Pick over and clean, or pare, core and cut up large fruits, 
heat with or without water and cook until very soft. Juicy 
fruits like currants and grapes need no added water, while 
fruits like apples should be barely covered with water. 
Strain the juice from the pulp through cheese-cloth or 
flannel. To the strained juice granulated sugar is added 
usually in the proportion of pint to pint, but good jelly may 
be made with half the volume of sugar to juice. The pro- 
portion depends on the acid and sugar in the fruit. Heat 
slowly to dissolve sugar, and boil gently until proper density 
is obtained, skimming froth that rises. If no syrup gauge 
is used, test by dropping a little on a cold plate to see if 
the jellying point is reached. Pour into sterilized glasses 
and when set cover with melted paraftine. 

The pulp may be squeezed in the straining bag to get a 
marmalade or even a second quality jelly: or, better, heat 
pulp again with a small amount of water and strain without 
pressure. This process may be repeated. Boil down some- 
what and add sugar and finish as before. Jelly may be made 
from parings and cores. 

As the presence of acid is essential to make the materials 
jelly, lemon or currant juice is usually added to sweet flavored 

1Q 



383 



frnils. ( Si II I II I I.I i\ « >! I Ik- ic nil of (•xpi'iiiiiciils iiiadc by I )i'. 
Coldlliwaili' ;il I 'iiiviTsil v of Illinois ;iii(l Miss Snow at 
I 'nixiTsily of C*liiraL;()). 

Soil Cooked Eggs. 

riai'c <.'<4j;s in one c\\\) of hoilini^' water (o each egg in a 
KailCi'l)an, cover and remove fnun llie lire. 

i'l'oni live lo ten ininntes will l»e ri(|nire(l accordinq' to 
I lie III mness desire(l. 

( )r, pnl ( uie ( i;v in i Mie ("ii|) < d C( )id waler and briiiL;' slowly 
1(» Ilk' boiling point. I'luii reiiioxc the egg. 
Hard Cooked Eggs. 

i\i'ep eggs ill water just helow the hoiling point for thirty 
niinntes. The Nolks should he dry enough to mash easily. 
Such eg,gs are snilahle for .salads ma\' he wanned in any 
well lla\'ored saiice. nia\' hi' sliihed h\ hK'iiding the yolks 
with chopped meal or nuts or seasoning (d aii\' kind. 

THICKENING AND LEAVENING. 
Omelets. 

There are hut two t\'pes of omelet to which sjiecial names 
are gi\'eii from the garnish adde(l. 
French Omelet. 

lU-al an egg slightlv. A(\i\ one lahlespooii water or milk, 
^.easoll with salt and a dash of pepper. Turn into a hot 
hnltered fr\ iiig p:m, which must hi' peile< tly cdeaii and 
snioolh. Lift cooked portions with a fork. Shaki' tlu' pan 
to pre\eiil adhesion. When all is lirm, fold and serve at 
once. 
PulTy Omelet. 

Separate while ami \<>'k id' one egg. lU-al white still, 
;idd \olk and hleiid logelhei". Add sail, pepper and one 
tahlespoon id water or imlk. km n into hnltered pan and 
place when' it will cook sl(»wly and e\enly. When firm, 
Told and serve. 

Twit tahle^poons (^i white sance or ])read sidlened in 
milk nia\ he ir ed instead * d' one of milk or water. ( "hojjped 
parslcN , iW ( dier xcu'tahle. aii\ nice hits ol meat or hsli, 
c'i:eOse, jell\. etc., may he folded into the oinelel jnst heh>ro 
srrviiu'-. 

20 



384 



Meringues or Kisses. 

lii'al c'^l;' vvliiU's with ii speck of cream of tartar. When 
stilT fold in one- fourth ciij) powdered sn,L;ar for eacli white. 
Idavor sh_L;htI\', (hop <»ii iiiit^reased paper, and hake slowly 
until dry, thirty minutes or more. 

hor soft inerin_i;nes on putldin^^s, use half as iinuh sn^ar. 
Fruit Souffles. 

\un- each stillly heaten e^-^- white fold in onc-fuurth cup 
thick, sweetened fruit |)ulp, or marmalade, or jam. Partly 
fill huttered molds, and hake like custards, until iirm. 

Serve with soft custard as a sauce. 
Sponge Cakes. 

K(|ual measures of e^gs, sugar and jjoui', or the weight 
(d the eggs in sugar, and half of the weight of the c-ggs in 
Hour. This also ;i])|)lies to the use of egg whites oidy as 
in angel cakes. 

In other words, two large or three small eggs rightly 
])icn(le(l with one-h.ilf (ii|) eac-li of sugar and Hour .uid 
carefully flavored and haked slowly will pioducc such a 
cake as that shown on page ()^. 

The yolks <d' the eggs shcjuld he he.'itcu until tliidcr and 
lighter colored than when l)eginning the process. To llicm 
add the sugar, one or two teas]>oons of lemon juice and a 
l)it of gratecl rind. ( )ver the whites of the eggs sprinkle 
a hit of salt and heal until ,^li(l. I'old them into the yolks 
and gradiiallv sift the half cuj) of Hour ovei-, hieiiding care- 
fully without stirring. Put into the pans and hake in a 
gfcntle heat for twenty minutes, if in small cakes; twice as 
long if in one mass. 
Cream Puffs. 

In a saucepan lu-at one-half cup water with two ounces 
of hutter or less. When hoiling hot mix in one-half cup 
of tloiu" and continue to stir while it cooks into a smooth 
mass. Cool till it will not cook eggs and mix in one cg^ 
and a second and heat the whole vigcjrously with the spoon. 
Shape on greased pan some distance from each other in 
six to twelve moimds and hake ahotit thirty minutes ac- 
cording- to the si/.e. They should he light and dry when 
taken fiom the ]r.\\\, otherwise they will shrink and he 
lieavy. 

21 



385 



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1 



386 



LEAVENING AND SHORTENING. 
Biscuit. 

Two cups sifted flour, three teaspoons of baking powder, 
one-half teaspoon of salt ; sift together, rub in one table- 
spoon of shortening — butter, oleo, lard, cottolene or drip- 
pings. Mix to a soft dough with about two-thirds cup 
of milk or water. Turn onto a floured board, roll and pat 
gently to three-quarters inch thick, cut and bake. Pastry 
flour make more delicate biscuits than bread flour. 

Dumplings for Stews : Omit shortening, add milk until 
dough may be dropped from the spoon into boiling stew. 
Cover tightly and cook rapidly lo minutes. 

Shortcake : Rub in one-fourth cup of butter in biscuit 
mixture. Cut like biscuit for individual shortcakes or use 
a square pan and divide with knife dipped in melted butter 
so that portions may separate readily after baking. 

Use shortcake mixture for covering to meat pies, apple 
dumplings, etc. 

MufBns. 

Two cups of sifted flour, two teaspoons of baking powder, 
one-half teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of sugar; sift and 
add one tablespoon of shortening melted, one beaten &gg and 
one cup of milk. Beat together thoroughly and bake in a 
quick oven. 

Blueberry Muffins : Use a little less milk in mufliP 
mixture and add one cup of blueberries and a little more 
sugar. Chopped apples or other fruit may be used in same 
way. 

Tea Muffins : In the above muflin mixture use one- 
fourth cup of sugar and of butter and add two more eggs. 

Drop Cakes. 

One and one-half cups of graham flour, one-half teaspoon 
each of salt and soda, and one-fourth cup of brown sugar; 
sift together and mix with three-fourths cup of thick sour 
milk into stiff batter which drop from a spoon onto a 
greased pan or in heated gem pans and bake quickly 12 to 
15 minutes. Sweet milk and two teaspoons of baking powder 
may be substituted as well as rye and other flours. 

23 



387 



Cereal Gems. 

Use even quantities of flour and softened cooked break- 
fast food, one teaspoon of baking powder to a cup of ma- 
terial, add sufficient milk to make a batter which will drop 
from the spoon. Mix thoroughly and bake in hot buttered 
gem pans. 

Boston Brown Bread. 

Sift together one cup of cornmeal, one cup of rye meal, 
or entire wheat flour, one teaspoon of soda, one-half tea- 
spoon salt. Mix with one-half cup molasses and one cup 
sour milk. If not soft enough to smooth out in the bowl, 
add a little water. Put in greased tins with tight cover 
and steam three hours or more. 

Corn Cake. 

Sift together three-quarter cups each of cornmeal and 
flour, one-half teaspoon each of salt and soda, one table- 
spoon of sugar. Mix with one beaten Qgg and one cup of 
thick sour milk or cream. Bake in muffin pans or single 
pan, twentv to thirty minutes, according to thickness. 

The cornmeal may be scalded with an equal volume of 
boiling water, left to cool, or over night, and more shorten- 
ing, two eggs and a little sugar may be added. 

Griddle Cakes. 

Into one pint of sifted flour mix one-half teaspoon of 
salt, three teaspoons of baking powder and one teaspoon 
of sugar. Beat two eggs until very light, turn into one cup 
of milk without stirring, add the mixture to the flour with 
two tablespoonsful of melted butter; beat well, and add 
more milk to make a batter about like thick cream. Beat 
vigorously, especially before each frying. 

Frv on hot griddle, grease with rind of pork or ham. 
Drop batter from end of the spoon, making circular cakes. 
Turn when full of bubbles. 



Waffles. 

Ai 
tnre. 



Are cooked on a waffle iron, using the griddle cake mix- 

24 



388 



Plain Cake (''Lightning" Cake). 

Place the flour sifter in the mixing bowl and put in 
it one and one-half cups of flour, three-fourths cup of fine 
granulated sugar, two level teaspoons of baking powder, 
one-half teaspoon of salt. Sift into the bowl. 

In the measuring cup, melt one-fourth cup of butter (or 
oleo), break in two eggs, fill up the cup with milk. Add 
one-half teaspoon flavoring extract or saltspoon of spice. 
Mix with the dry ingredients and beat well two or three 
minutes. Bake in sheet or greased muffin tins in quick 
oven. 

Variations : Add two tablespoons of cocoa, or an ounce 
of melted chocolate. Use one cup caramel or maple syrup 
in place of sugar. Leave out part of the sugar for Cottage 
Pudding. 

Cookies. 

Rub one-half cup of butter until creamy, gradually add 
one cup of sugar, then put in one tgg and beat together 
thoroughly. Next add, alternately, one-half cup of milk 
or water and one pint of flour, in which two teaspoons of 
baking powder have been sifted. Use enough more flour 
to make a soft dough, from one to two cupfuls, according 
to the nature of the flour, roll out thin, cut with a cookie 
cutter or in fancy shapes, and bake in a quick oven. 

Variations : Before all the flour is added, divide into 
four portions; to one add one teaspoon of lemon extract, 
to another one-half cup of desiccated cocoanut ; one-half 
ounce of chocolate melted, or a teaspoon of cocoa, sifted in 
with a little flour; to the fourth, one teaspoon of mixed 
spice and one-half cup of chopped raisins, etc. Or flavor 
the portions with ginger, almond with chopped almonds on 
top, or with dates, figs, nuts. Or use less flour and drop 
from a spoon for a soft thick cake. 
Gingerbread.^ 

Sift together two cups of flour, one-half teaspoon each 
of salt and soda and one teaspoon of ginger. Mix with one 
cup of molasses and two tablespoons of fat softened in one- 
half cup of hot water. Bake twenty minutes or more in a 
moderate oven. 

25 



389 



Doughnuts. 

Sift together four cups of flour, one teaspoou of salt, 
tliree teaspoons of baking- powder, one-half teaspoon of 
mixed spice and one cup of sugar. J\lix with one egg and 
one cup of milk. 

Sour milk and soda may be used in place of baking pow- 
der. For richer dcuighnuts, two eggs and one tablespoon of 
butter may be used. 

Plain Pastry. 

Sift two cups of flour with one-half teaspoon of salt and 
cut in with a knife, one-fourth cup or two ounces of short- 
ening. ]\lix with about one-half cup of ice water into a 
stiit dough. Roll out and spread with one ounce of butter, 
fold and add a second ounce of butter in the same way, 
making one-half cup of shortening in all. For upper crusts 
pjore shortening may be rolled in if desired. Keep every- 
thing as cool as possible. The lightness of the pastry de- 
pends on the amount and coolness of the air enclosed and 
the flakiness on the number of layers of fat and dough pro- 
duced b\' folding and rolling. 

YEAST DOUGHS— GENERAL PROPORTIONS. 



Sugar 



Bread 

j\Iufiins . . . . 

Rolls 

Fancy Rolls 

Buns 

Coitee Cake 



Short- 
ening 



Liquid 



I tsp. /J oz. +; I cup 



Yeast 
Cake 



I tbs. 

1 tbs. 

2 tbs. 
Yi cup 
M cup 



]'i oz. 

1 oz. 

2 oz. 
2 OZ. 
2 OZ. 



. 4 to 1 
/4 to I 
J4 to I 



I cup 
I cup 
I cup 

I cup I y\ to I 

Yi cup Ya to I 



4 to I 



Flour 



3 cups 

2 cups I -f- 

3 cups 
3cups+; I + 

! 

3cups-fi 

2 cups ' 2 -f- 



Eggs 



26 



390 



Bread — Short Process. 

For eacli loaf, use one cup of milk scalded or half milk 
and half hot water, or all warm water, one-half teaspoon 
of salt and of sugar, one-half or more compressed yeast 
cake, softened with luke warm water, and about three cups 
of bread flo.ir. Alix well and kneed until the dough is 
smo(^th and springy. The dough should now be warm. Let 
rise till double, shape, put in pan and let rise again and bake. 
Or this amount of dough may be shaped into a dozen or 
two dozen small rolls before final rising. 

Entire Wheat Bread. 

Scald one cup of milk ; in it melt one teaspoon of butter 
and half a teaspoon each of sugar and salt. When luke- 
warm, add half a cake of compressed yeast, softened in 
one- fourth cup of warm water. Stir in between two and 
three cups of flour to make a dough stifif enough to hold 
its shape. Mix thoroughly with a knife, but do not knead 
it until after it has risen to double its bulk, then shape into 
small loaves, let rise until double in size, bake in hot oven 
about half an hour. 

One-fourth cup of molasses may be used in place of the 
sugar if preferred. 

Rolls — Long Process. 

For rolls or two loaves of bread, put into the mixing bowl 
one tablespoon of butter or lard, one tablespoon of sugar, 
one teaspoon of salt and one pint of scalded milk. When luke- 
warm, add one quarter yeast cake softened in water ana three 
cups of flour. Cover and let rise. In the morning, add to 
this sponge about three cups of flour to make thick enough 
to knead. Let rise till double, shape, put in pans, rise again 
and bake. 

Muffins : Add two or three eggs to the sponge, but no 
more flour. Bake in muflin pans. 

Coffee Cake. 

Work into one pint of light dough, two-thirds cup of 
white sugar, one egg, and two ounces of melted butter. 
Mix thoroughly to a creamy, smooth batter by beating. 

27 



391 



Toiii iiild JkiII.iw p.iii :iii<l Id 11', (• ;iL;aiii. Sill siij.',;ir ;iini 
( iiiii.'iiiK HI (t\(i llic hip :iii(l li.ikc ill ;i (|iiirk ovi'ii, Si'l'Vf 
w ;ii III. 



Use of Stnle Hrcnd. 
Bread Cases. 

('ill -,Ii(^(s (»f bread I \vn inclics thick and lliroo Indies 
Imiii;. i\(iiin\c pari oj" ctiiinhs from llic ((iili r, Icaviiij^' a 
littllnw s|)ac'e. S|)ri'a(l willi build' and biowii in llie oven. 

Croutons. 

(ill dale linad iiilo slices aboiil one lliird iiicli lliiek and 
llicii ill cubes. r»ake in inoderale oven iiiilil <.M»l(|eii bidwii. 

Dry Ci unihs. 

( 1 11 I . reiiiainiiii'; lioni cioulons, elc\, should be driiMJ 
in llie oxen, lolled and silled, llie line ones used lor cro- 
(|nelles, etc., llie coar.er lor ^^lu^^nl^ or es("alloped dishes. 

C Vack'er cniiiib'. ina\ be used in the ^>aule \va\'. 

Buttered Crumbs. 

Mell biillir and slir in ciuml)S till the Imller is evenly 
distribuled. 

( )ne ounce id biiller for one cup cd' crumbs is a fair pro- 
porliMii. ihillered crumbs seasoned and uioisleiied are used 
lor sliiHinj.'; i»eppt'rs. loiiialoes, lisli, poullry, etc. 

Filling for Fish or Fowl. 

( )iie cup of crumbs will serve Uw a small fish or chicken, 
while a lai<;e fowl or liirke\ will iH-(|uire two or three. 
With i-acli cup (d' crumbs blend one ounce or more of butter 
or c'hopped fat salt pork, <Hie teaspoon parsle\' or iiiixi'd 
lu'rl)s, one half UM.pooii salt and a lillK- pepper. Moisten 
with milk, water or slock. I'Oi- lish season also with lemon 
and onion jnicH'. 

Maslud potato or chesluuls ma\' be used instead < d' 
crumbs, 

2e 



392 



Fat— To Try Out and Clarify. 

Cut the fat — beef suet or Hank fat — in small pieces, re- 
moving skin and bits of lean meat. Cover with cold salted 
v/ater and leave in a cold jjlace for several hours. iJrain 
ofif the water, and if possibU- soak a^ain, and drain. Cook 
slowly in moderate oven or in ui)|)er ])art of the flonble 
boiler till the fat has melted ancl the scraps are crisj), but 
not brown. Strain and cool. Slices of raw yxAaio or pieces 
of charcoal cooked in the fat bc-fore straining will absorb 
any im])urities. 

lieef, pfjrk and chicken fat may be ccjinbincd. Snr]>lns fat 
from roast beef, corned beef, etc., may be added. 

Such fat may be used for shortening muffms, j^in^er- 
bread, etc., iov ^reasin^ pans, for some sauces and soups, 
or for deej) frying". Mutton fat may be prcpaied to add to 
fry fat. 

I'^at frr;m bacon, ham or sausaj^es should be reserved for 
hashes <jr warminj^ over potatoes. 

MEATS. 

Broiled Meats, Chops, Steaks. 

Hie meat slxjuld be cut in convenient pieces, and some 
of the bone, g^ristle and fat removed. Sections one inch 
thick will be more juicy than thinner ones. Wipe the meat 
with a dam]) cloth, grease the broiler or pan with a i)iece of 
the fat, or brush melted fat over the meat. [Mace tlie meat 
where intense heat will reach it at first, under the gas flame, 
or in a hot pan on top of the stove, or over hot coals. Turn 
often at first, every half minute if directly over the coals, 
until well seared and browned on both sides, then move it 
farther away from ihe fire so the heat may ])enetrate to 
the center without burning the outside. 

As the meat is seared (ju the surface the juices are driven 
towards the center, and expanding with the heat tend to 
make the surface of the meat ]ju ff outward. This is very 
apparent between the wires of a double broiler anrl ]:)robably 
is the best indication that the meat is cooked. 

Steaks one inch thick should cook in i]\'c or six minutes 
to be rare, eight or ten ininnh-s to be well done, the time 

2J 



393 



varying according- io (lie inctliod of cooking and intensity 
of heat. MuUoii chops may be served rare, Iamb usually 
well done, veal and pork always must be thoroughly cooked. 

Broiled meats should be served at once on a hot dish 
ctnd with slight seasoning beside their own juices. If kept 
hot the cooking is continued too far. 

r^ish and chicken may be partially broiled and then fin- 
ished in the oven. Apply \\\v direct heal mainly to the cut 
inside surface, as the skin burns easily. 

Roast Meats. 

Trim, wipe, score the fat ])()rti()n .and rnl) salt into that, 
place on rack in pan, sprinkle Horn" all over it, put skin side 
down. Have oven very hot at lirst to sear outside quickly 
to prevent escape of juice, then reduce heat, liaste occa- 
.iionally as needed with the fat which cooks out into the 
pan, and turn the roast over to cook it evenly. 

If there is danger of burniug put some water in the i)an 
after the meat is seared, but this is not necessary if heat of 
(wen is lowered. 

A sirloin or rib roast weighing five pounds will recjuiie 
a.bout one lunu", or longer, if it is to be well done. A surer 
rule for lime of cooking is to ahow fifteen minutes for each 
iiu^h in lliiekness, or twentv minutes if wanted well done. 

Braised Beef. 

UvSe a thick section of the lower part of the round, two 
to four ])otnids. Trim, wipe and sprinkle with (lour, season 
with salt and i^epjKM". Brown under the gas or in hot fat. 
Put in casserole, partly cover with water or brown or 
tomato sauc(\ Cover closely and cook in very slow oven 
tliriH' to five hours. 

Meat Stew. 

Neck or breast of lamb of veal or inexpensive cuts of 
beef mav be used in this way. Cover bone? with cold water 
and heat sknvly. Cut meat in convenient pieces, roll in 
flour seasoned with salt and pepper. Fry bits of fat, then 

30 



394 



brown sections of prepared meat and oni(jn if desired. I'ut 
meat in kettle with bones when water is hot. 

Wlien nearly tender add carrot, turnip, pcpjXTs, or celery 
cut in small shapes about one cup each to one ])ound of 
meat. 

Potatoes j)ared and cut in quarters may be added 20 to 30 
minutes before servinj:^, ancl dum|)linp;s 10 minutes before 
serving-. 

Escalloped Fish or Meat. 

Equal measures of cooked minced meat, bread cruml)s 
and white or tomato sauce; or, for one measure of meat, 
half as much sauce and one-fourth as much buttered crumbs. 
( I)oile(l rice or macaroni may be used instead of crumbs.) 

Remove all uneatable ])ortions from meat and mince or 
chop. Put in layers in a buttered dish, having crumbs for 
the last. l)ake until heated thn)Uf^h and brown on top. 
Fish or Meat Loaf, or Timbales. 

Remove skin, juristic and bone from meat or fish and 
mince fine. Combine with an equal quantity of bread 
crumjjs or stuffinii!;- from a baked fish or roast fowl, season as 
desired, moisten with milk or stock. Add one l)caten e^^ 
or more to each pint of the mixture. I'ack in l)uttered 
moulds, steam or bake until firm in center. Turn out and 
serve with sauce. 

Meat Loaf in Rice. 

Line a mould with well-cooked rice. Fill with the meat 
prepared as above. Cover with rice. Steam an hr)ur. Serve 
witli tomato sauce. 

Fish Balls. 

In a stew ])an put one p\ui potatoes, pared and (juartered, 
and one cu]) salt cod fish which has been j^icked apart in 
cold water. Cover with boilinj^^ water and cook until the 
potatoes are soft. Drain in a colander till no water can 
be shake!! out. Iveturn to pan, mash thoroughly, add salt 
if needed, a shake of ])epper, one teaspoon butter, one raw 
ej^CS", and beat all together. Shape on a spoon or in small 
balls and fry in deep fat, hot enough to brown them in one 
minute. Drain on soft paper. 

31 



395 



CEREALS AND VEGETABLES. 

Breakfast Foods. 

Usual propoi (ii)iis — ^onc-half cup flakes or one-fonrlli cup 
granules to one cup water, ouc-fourlh Icaspoou salt to one 
cup water. 

The denser the cereal, the more water and the longer the 
time required. 

Rrinj4' water to boiling point in ui)per ])art of douhle 
boiler, placed directly on the stove. 

Pour cereal slowly into boiling water, stirring constantly. 
Let boiling continue about five minutes till mixture begins 
to thicken. Tlace over boiling water in lower part of the 
boiler. Cover and cook gently with hi lie stirring one hour 
or more, or till lender and soft. ( )r i)ut in iMreless Cooker 
for three hours. 

Serve hot, with or without sugar, with nliIl^, cream or 
butter. Put in moulds with fruit and serve cold as dessert. 
Pack solidly in loaf shape, slice when cold, brown in hot 
fat, serve hot. 

Corn Meal Mush. 

Mix one cup cornnical, one-foiu'th cu|) of Hour, one lea- 
spoon salt, one cup cold milk or water. When smooth 
blend with one pint l)oiling water, stir for about five min- 
utes. When thicl< place over water or in steamers and 
cook one hour or more. Serve hot or pack in i)an to fry, 
or dip in fat and toast inider the gas. 

Rice. 

Pick over and wash thoroughl\' or j^arboil five minutes 
and drain. Then ])ut in a buttered dish with twice its bulk 
of boihiig water and set in a steam cooker. In three- 
quarters of an hour it should be tender and every kernel 
distinct, an* I it ma\' be cooked longer without becoming 
mushy. 

Rice Croquettes. 

With one pint of cooked rice (if cold, reheated) blen<l 
one tablespoon butter and one or two beaten egg yolks. 
Season with salt, pepper and ]iarsley, or with sugar and 

32 



396 



spice. Divide in ten or twelve portions, press in firm 
shape, roll in egg and crumbs, and fry in deep fat. 

Boston Baked Beans. 

Soak one pint l)eans over night. Parboil in the morning 
until the skins crack readily with a slight pressure. A 
very little soda may be put into the water to help this 
i:)roccss. Score the rind, of one-fourth pound fat salt pork 
and rinse it. JJrain the beans and put part in the bean pot, 
then the ])ork and cover with the beans, leaving only a 
little of the pork rind exposed. Mix one teaspoon of salt, 
one-fourth teaspoon of mustard and a tablespoon or more 
of molasses as desired, add water and pour over the beans. 
Cover and bake twelve hours or more, keeping the beans 
fdled up with water until the last hour, when the cover 
should be removed and the pork rind and the top layer of 
beans should brown. 

Potatoes. 
Baked. 

Choose those of equal size and scrub with brush. Cook in 
hot oven 30 to 40 minutes, or until soft. Then crack the 
skin to let out steam. The potato should be plump (not 
shriveled), and the inside white and mealy. 

Boiled. 

Wash, pare if imperfect or old. Tf not of uniform size, 
divide the larger ones. Put in boiling salted water and 
cook for 20 to 30 minutes, till tender. Drain off the water 
and shake the uncovered kettle to let the steam escape. 

Riced. 

Put boiled potatoes through strainer or riccr into a hot 
dish from which they are to be served. 

Mashed. 

In a hot pan mash boiled potatoes. For each half pint, 
add two tablespoons milk, one teaspoon butter, season with' 
salt and pepper. 

33 



397 



Croquettes. 

Prepare mashed potato witli less milk and one egg yolk 
for each half pint and season with celery salt, paprika and 
parsley. Roll in crumbs, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep 
fat. 

Stuffed Potatoes. 

Cut a slice from end of baked potatoes, scrape out inside, 
mash and season. Add chopped meat, cheese or parsley for 
yariety. Refill skins and reheat in oyen. 
Canoes, or Potatoes on the Half Shell. 

Cut the potatoes in two lengthwise, refill each part and 
brown. 

Creamed. 

Cut boiled potatoes in cubes or slices and reheat in thin 
white sauce, one-half cup to each cup of potato. 
Hash. 

Use two parts potato to one part meat, or equal amounts 
of each. Chop meat, chop or mash potato. Season with 
salt, pepper, onion, etc., moisten with grayy or water. For 
one cup hash, put one tablespoon fat in a frying pan. When 
hot, put in the hash and cook slowly, without stirring, until 
a brown crust forms on the bottom. Fold like an omelet. 
French Hash. 

Put meat and gravy in a deep dish, cover with mashed 
potato and bake till golden brown. 

SUGAR. 

Caramel. 

Put sugar in a smooth iron pan over a hot fire and stir 
constantly with an old wooden spoon until melted to a light 
brown syrup. Scrape off any sugar that forms in lumps. 
When all is melted add an equal amount of boiling water 
and simmer a few moments until blended into a thick syrup. 

A quantity of this may be made at once and kept on hand 
to flavor and sweeten custards and ice cream, or to serve as 
a sauce with other puddings. 

If it should happen to brown beyond the shade of good 
maple syrup, let it go a little further until the sweet flavor 

34 



398 



would be lost. Then dissolve as above and bottle to use for 
coloring soups and meat gravies. 

Syrup. 

Combine equal quantities of water and sugar in a sauce- 
pan and stir until dissolved. Boil five to ten minutes until 
only slightly reduced in quantity. Can while hot in small 
jars and keep on hand to sweeten fruit drinks or ices as the 
dissolving of the sugar in cold liquids is a slow and unsat- 
isfactory process. 

Fondant. 

In an agate saucepan put one cup granulated sugar, about 
one-sixteenth of a teaspoon of cream of tartar — a bit the 
size of a small pea — and one-half cup of hot water. Stir 
till sugar is dissolved, then cover and cook without stirring. 
Skim and wipe the sides of the pan if necessary. Boil 
about ten minutes or till 238 to 240 degrees F., when it will 
form a soft ball in cold water. Turn into a greased bowl 
or platter and cool slightly. It will grain if stirred while 
too warm. Beat and knead till a smooth, creamy mass. If 
it hardens too rapidly dip the hands in water and continue 
the kneading. 

Pack away in covered dish for a day or longer, then shape 
as desired. Colors and flavors must be very concentrated. 
By combination with chocolate, dates, figs, nuts, etc., a 
great variety of candies may be secured. This fondant is 
a very satisfactory frosting for cake and may be kept on 
hand. Warm it over water until it can be spread on the 
cake. 

Boiled Frostings. 

Cook one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water or 
less, and a bit of cream of tartar until it will thread, not 
quite reaching the soft ball stage. Then pour slowly on 
the stiffly beaten white of one egg and continue beating 
until cool enough to spread. Much depends on the moisture 
in the atmosphere as well as the dryness of the cake. 

For a still softer frosting a larger proportion of egg white 
is used. This may be varied with different flavors and 
colors. 

35 



399 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

French Dressing for Salads. 

One-fourth teaspoon saU, speek pepper, (uie lahlespoon 
vinegar, two ov three tahlespiH>ns oil. 

Iliend thonni^hly and ponr over the sahul. 

Mayonnaise Dressing. 

( )ne egg yolk, inie-hall to one enp oil, one lahlespoon 
vinegar, one tahlespoon lemon Jniee, one-half teaspoon salt, 
c-ne-half teaspoon nuistanl, few grains eayenne. 

Mix vinegar, lemon jniee and seasoning. 

Heat egg yolk. ad(' oil drop h\ drop at tirst, heating ev)n- 
tinnally. .When thiek add a little of tlie seasoning mixtnre, 
then more oil and alternate nntil'all is nsed. 

Utensils and materials shonld he kept as cool as possihle. 

Chocolate. 

Melt one onnee ihoeolate in saneepan cn'er hot water, 
add a few grains salt, (^ne tahlespoon sugar, one-half pint 
hi^iling water; stir till smooth; hoil one minnte. P>lend with 
one pint hot milk and cook in ilouhle hi>iler. 

lieat with Dover egg heater to prevent skin forming on 
top. Just hefore serving, an q^^ yolk ma\' he addi'd to the 
chocolate. Ser\'e with whi]ii')e(l cream. 

Chocolate and cocoa hoth contain starch which requires 
cooking. 



36 



400 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



T N THE study of Economics there are two great 
^ divisions — production and consumption. Until 
within a few years, Ijy far the hon's share of time and 
study has heen given to the first of these divisions. It 
has heen deemed sufficient for the securing of happi- 
ness and prosperity to a people to point out how the 
greatest degree of efficiency in producing wealth might 
be obtained. The manner in which that wealth was 
expended was considered less important. Recently a 
decided change has taken place. A conviction has 
been growing, especially among students or economics, 
of the equal importance of the other division, which 
covers the use made of the money after it has been 
acquired. This emphasizes the important place of the 
home in Economics as will he realized by those who 
consider how largely the home is the center of the 
consumption of wealth. 

In former times the home was practically the entire 
economic world. Most of what was produced to meet 
the needs of the people originated there, while all of 
it found ready consumption within the family circle 
or by limited exchange. To-day the shop and factory 
have taken most of the productions and developed them 



Divisions 
in Economics 



Place of 
Home in 
Consumption 
of Wealth 



401 



2 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

one by one, into large industries outside the home, 
such as the manufacture of dress goods and cloth of 
all kinds, carpets, bedding, candles and soap; trades, 
such as tailoring, shoe-making and millinery, all hav- 
ing their origin in the home. The preparation of food 
is almost the only work left to the home which may 
be called creative, unless we include the supreme work 
of developing men and women. 

Yet with production passed practically out of the 
control of the home, we find the other branch of 
Economics, consumption, still chiefly confined there. 
Most of the wealth acquired outside is expended on 
either the home or the interests closely connected with 
it. Women thus become the main directors of these 
expenditures. It is generally conceded that most of 
them stand in great need of a better understanding 
of the importance of the work that is theirs, and of 
the principles which underlie all correct economy. 
Economy Two aims are of equal importance in the practice 

of economy; (i) to increase the income, and (2) to 
diminish the expenditures. The last contains possi- 
bilities of comfort of quite as high order as the first. 
There are, according to Devine, ''three methods by 
which general prosperity may be increased; a better 
choice, a better production, a better consumption. In 
comparing the relative importance of the* three 
methods it will be found that there are greater imme- 
diate possibilities in the third (a better consumption) 
than in either of the others, and that of the two that 



402 



ECONOMICS 3 

remain, the first (a better choice) is more important 
than the second."* 

In the Hght of all these facts it is a surprising thing 
that anyone can look lightly upon the share that is 
given to woman in the economic struggle. There 
are those who urge that the reason why women are 
finding the care of their homes less attractive than 
formerly is the fact that all which adds zest and is 
worth while is taken from them. Rather is it true that 
some things which demanded time and strength have 
yielded to more vital things, and there is now op- 
portunity to perfect that which is left, with a better 
appreciation of its importance. 

Devine further affirms that "it is the present duty 
of the economist to. magnify the office of the wealth 
expender, to accompany her to the very threshold of 
the home, that he may point out, with untiring vig- 
ilance, its woeful defects, its emptiness, caused not 
so much by lack of income, as by lack of knowledge 
of how to spend wisely. There is no higher economic 
function than that of determining how wealth shall 
be used. Even if man remains the chief producer, and 
woman remains the chief factor in determining how 
wealth shall be used, the economic position of woman 
will not be considered by those who judge with dis- 
crimination, inferior to that of man. Both may in their 
respective positions contribute directly and powerfully 
to the advancement of general prosperity." 



Economic 
Position 
of Woman 



Office 
of the 
Wealth 
Expender 



* Devine: Economic Function of Woman. 



403 



Use of 
Money 



Business 

Side of 

tt'o^me-Making 



4 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

As women awaken to a realization of tliis truth, 
and bend their energy to acquire the knowledge and 
skill necessary to do their part more successfully, we 
shall begin to attain the degree of comfort and pros- 
perity possible for us to enjoy. There is far more 
money earned in tlie majority of families than is wisely 
spent. The error is frequently careless expenditure, 
not sloth in acquiring, a misuse rather than lack of 
income. The old adage, ''A penny saved is a penny 
earned," should be daily before the housewife. She 
should weigh in a less vague and general way the 
saying that "one cannot have his money and spend it 
too." Money has but a limited purchasing power: 
if it goes to gratify one desire, another must be denied. 
Few, very few, are able to satisfy all material desires. 
The mistake is made in giving too little thought to the 
various avenues of expenditure, the desire uppermost 
at the time being the one gratified, regardless of the 
relative importance of others. Combined with this 
are usually the failure to exercise foresight and the 
lack of sufficient knowledge of values to insure full 
money value for each outlay. "The woman who longs 
to get where she 'Won't have to count every penny' 
will never have her longing satisfied until she makes 
every penny count."* 

As the economic importance of the home is more 
fully realized, the business side of home-making is 
emphasized. The home has a close and intimate rela- 



♦ Miss Richardson: The Woman Who Spends. 



404 



HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 5 

tion to the business world in general. The house- 
wife in her customary purchases comes in touch with 
retail trade of almost every variety and adds her con- 
tribution. If she makes use of the bank as the best 
medium of exchange, she shares in the interests of one 
of the large business enterprises. With a surplus to 
invest, she has to do with one or another branch of 
the business world in selecting the form of invest- 
ment, and in looking after the income from it. To 
conduct any and all of these interests in the most ef- 
ficient and successful manner requires as thorough 
training as for any other line of business. Only busi- 
ness-like methods can succeed. The reason why so 
many women fail at just this point is from a lack, in 
their early life and education, of the training which 
develops business ability. 

HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 

Housekeeping ranks among the professions as truly initiative 
as any other occupation. It is more than a trade, since 
one who works at a trade performs each day the task 
assigned, the work being planned and directed by 
another. Thus little of the worker's energy is ex- 
pended in deciding his activities. It is the director 
who must possess and exercise the power to guide; 
his work being to initiate, plan and direct. This re- 
quires larger capacity and ability than is required of 
the one who merely practices a trade. 

It is the work of the housewife to initiate, plan 
and direct the business of the house. The woman 
who considers this work as the opportunity to assist 



405 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Need of 
Education 



Estimation 
of Values 



Education 

of the 

Home-Maker 



in sharing the responsibihties of the wage-earner, and 
in developing the powers of those making up the fam- 
ily, has grasped the truth concerning the possibilities of 
her work. 

There should be no more question as to the need of 
education and training for the woman who selects the 
food, clothing and works of art which minister to the 
highest welfare of a family than there is for the need 
cf study on the part of the farmer, the manufacturer, 
or the artist who produces them. 

Everywhere training is showing its benefits in the 
greater efficiency and skill of those who take ad- 
vantage of it. \\''omen will never be able to spend 
money so as to bring adequate results, until they 
have in some way acquired a broad training in the 
estimation of values. The word of the salesman is 
a poor guide, yet one who has had no training to aid 
her is unable to select for herself any more satis- 
factorily. Houses which are turned over to ''experts" 
are usually striking witnesses of abundant expendi- 
ture, but pitiably fail to convey to eye or heart the 
refreshing individuality or the satisfaction to be real- 
ized in the cultivated woman's home. 

The fullest, most completely rounded education is 
none too good for one who is called upon to use and 
impart so varied information as is the housewife. The 
study of science is especially practical for one who 
aspires to master all the things that come within the 
range of her work. A knowledge of chemistry is 



406 



HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 



necessary to an understanding of food composition, of 
cooking, cleaning, etc. The laws of physics are as 
closely related. For the mother, modern psychology 
is an indispensable study, if she is to understand her 
child, and wisely guide its development. If this 
knowledge may not be secured in school, a great deal 
may be done to supplement such training. Study in 
this course should do much along this line. 

In addition to the knowledge gained through study, 
there should be a liberal amount of practice in the 
various duties before one assumes the care of a house. 
Unfortunate the home where the practical experience 
all comes after marriage. It comes at the hardest. 
of periods and is unjust to any man. In no busi- 
ness can failure be graver or the results more serious. 
The fact that some very efficient housekeepers have 
evolved from unpromising beginnings is no argument. 
Such are, without exception, most eager for their 
daughters to receive training, since they know by dear 
experience its value. 

Much of the present aversion to household duties 
would vanish before adequate preparation to perform 
them. The American Kitchen Magazine published, in 
January, 1901, some suggestions of leading men on 
the general subject of Housekeeping on a Business- 
like Basis. Some of their remarks are significant. 
One says : "Whenever one's knowledge of a subject has 
passed the stage of drudgery and becomes a science, 
its performance immediately becomes a pleasure. The 
ability to do a thing in the highest known perfection, 



Practice 
Necessary 



Housekeeping 
on a 

Businesslike 
Basis 



407 



8 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



A Right 
Spirit 



Training 

and 

Devotion 

Essential 



Business 
Principles 



or a little better than anyone else, is always a source 
of delight, and it matters little what that something 
is. This spirit imparts its influence to everyone in 
any way associated with the work. The men or 
women who know their business seldom have diffi- 
culty in keeping those under them happily employed. 
. . . . Wherever the circumstances of our life land 
us, we should make our stand, do our part of the 

world's work, and do it well The woman who 

would have a home of her own and a happy one, 
should know, not only how to manage the chamber- 
maid, but the cook as well. The moment that either 
discovers that there is method on the part of their 
mistress and knowledge superior to their own, they 

will comply with her requests There will be no 

trouble with the kitchen end of the house when women 
take the same pains to know their business as men do. 

"The first essential is the proper trainii:ig\ The sec- 
ond essential is such a desire for success that she is 
willing to perform her part with industry and devo- 
tion. 

"It is not as necessary to show that housekeeping 
has in it elements of business as to make house- 
keepers themselves recognize its business character 
and apply to it ordinary business principles. A quick 
attention to details, a fine sense of values, good judg- 
ment in buying and selling, and a ready adaptation of 
means to end with the least possible loss, are points 
of a good business man, — the housekeeper certainly 
has need of them." 



408 



HOME EXPENDITURES 

Whatever the condition of a family, whether large 
or small, in city or country, in private house or apart- 
ment, the successful expenditure of money to supply 
the family with needed comforts depends vastly more 
upon brains than upon dollars, upon the standard of 
life than upon circumstances. To know where to 
economize and where to lavish, to be on the alert for 
the small wastes, so often disregarded, — only train- 
ing and experience can realize the ideal in these things. 

The extreme economies practiced in former years 
are beyond doubt questionable in these days of aston- 
ishing increase in the production of wealth. Time has 
become too valuable to be profitably spent in weaving 
rag carpets merely to save the rags. If done, there 
must be some aesthetic value found to justify it. The 
same holds- true of many occupations of the earlier 
housekeeper. The taking of these occupations from 
the home and the development of them into independ- 
ent industries has liberated much time and strength, 
which it is the duty of the housewife not to waste. 
The changes have been phenomenally rapid, and ad- 
justment could hardly be expected to keep pace, but 
there is much to indicate an appreciation of the sit- 
uation on the part of manv women and a sincere 
desire and endeavor to co-operate in meeting the 
changes intelligently. 

There is no less need of the practice of economy in 
the expenditures of the present time than formerly, 



Extreme 
Economies 



True Economj^ 



409 



10 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

even if the methods necessarily differ. For instance, 
while we may afford ourselves finer materials and 
more variety in clothing there is a correspondingly 
greater demand for wise and intelligent choice of ma- 
terials for bodily needs and the avoidance of such as 
purport to be what they are not. Otherwise extrav- 
agance in the loss of time through illness, or even of 
life itself, results. Economy in food no longer re- 
quires the family to forego certain food-stuffs wdiich 
were formerly luxuries. The requisite is rather the 
exercise of foresight in buying the product when in 
season, or legitimately within the reach of the limited 
purse, 
standards O"^ must have a standard, conciously defined and 

of Life recognized, in order to choose successfully. A stand- 
ard of life consists of those principles which guide 
one's motives and direct one's activities. Conscious 
standards are not often enough realized in things 
ethical. We have standards of weights and measures 
by which all weights and measures are tested. We 
have standards by which we discriminate in music, art, 
and many other things. But who can define his 
Standard of Life readily? We may reveal it to others, 
in fact we are constantly doing so as we decide this 
or that. The great difference between a successful 
person who accomplishes much, and one who never 
seems to amount to anything in particular, is the dif- 
ference in which their standards of life have been 
made clear and conscious, thus becoming a vital, guid- 
ing factor in action. 



410 



HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 



n 



We recognize innumerable varieties of standards, 
as the result of varying education and training, advan- 
tages and opportunity, or the lack of them. False 
standards arise from failure to discriminate between 
needs and zuants. There are conflicting opinions as 
to what vital needs are, although it would seem self- 
evident that they consist materially, in tJiose things 
which man must have to live nnder the best conditions, 
such as pure food, healthful clothing, sanitary houses, 
sufficient air and light together with those things 
which will minister to his highest intellectual and 
spiritual development. Through failure to distinguish 
intelligently the majority of people spend two-thirds 
or more of their income for what fails to bring them 
the best results in health and happiness. 

We are too inclined to scorn the women of former 
days because of their more limited horizons. We 
•may profitably study their understanding of their con- 
ditions and needs and the wise adaptation to them, 
which gave them an important place in the work and 
progress of their time. The women who succeed to- 
day in the use of larger opportunities are those who, 
like them, dare to live in intelligent independence, 
true each to her individual standard of life. Such 
women do not indiscriminately copy the manners of 
living or dress of others merely to be like them or in 
fashion. They are not ashamed to acknowledge a 
liking for home-making and housekeeping. They 
spend with care and judgment A suggestive, corn- 



Needs 

and 
Wants 



Adaptation 
to Condition? 



411 



12 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Good 
Intentions 



Differing' 
Standards 



parison between the women of the past and those 
of the present is that of Miss Richardson in The Wom- 
an Who Spends: "In olden times women thought 
and thought and thought before they spent, often mak- 
ing the spending a burden. Now women often spend, 
and then think and think and think. Nor does the 
lack of thought beforehand ease the burden of the 
results of her spending." 

As urged elsewhere it is not enough that we be well- 
intentioned since even then we may be painfully or 
harmfully extravagant through ignorance. We must 
know not only that pure food, hygienic clothing and 
durable furnishings are well, but we must know what 
constitutes each and how to secure them. Other- 
wise we must be classed among the extravagant. 

No true economy can be practiced in the home until 
a standard is adopted by all the members of the family, 
in which there is agreement of efifort to promote the 
family well-being; at the same time that all unite to 
accept with intelligent grace the common deprivations 
necessary to lessen family waste either of money, 
labor, time, health, strength, or possessions. 

Standards in regard to living must necessarily dif- 
fer greatly with different individuals and families. 
The education, tastes, and occupations of people dif- 
fer so widely that it would be entirely impossible to 
establish a universal standard. That one may have 
greater demands than another is purely accidental, yet 
must be reckoned with. Even our individual stand- 



412 



HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 



13 



ards are not stationary but are ever giving way to 
new and higher ones if we are as progressive as we 
should be. All this makes it difficult to proportion ex- 
penditures so that the highest good shall always be 
secured. 

The most important reason for attempting to classify 
our wants and our provision for their gratification, is 
that thereby we may provide ourselv^es with a defi- 
nitely recognized standard which can be reckoned 
with, studied, and, from time to time improved. Man 
shares with the brutes a low or primitive range of 
desires consisting of the satisfying of the physical de- 
mands for food, rest, shelter and clothing. Gradually 
he comes to desire other things, his standard is raised, 
and by the repression of his desires in the lower range 
he is able to secure satisfaction in the higher. The 
day laborer necessarily has standards as to food which 
differ from those of the scholar. The scholar must 
expend more for dress, perhaps, regardless of the dif- 
ference of income but this difference is not vital, since 
all genuine and legitimate differences seem to pro- 
mote progress in the people. The danger lies rather 
in "accidental accompaniments" which are not neces- 
sities. 

In deciding upon a standard of life, one acts upon 
his best judgment at the time, independent of others, 
except as he recognizes that he may improve his stand- 
ard by comparison with theirs. "Style of living," on 
the contrary, is thrust upon one from without, Ac- 



Value of 
ClassiflcatioD 



Style of 
Living 



413 



14 



HO USER OLD MAN A GEM EN T 



Accurate 

Record 

Important 



Basis of 
Classification 



cepting it, he becomes its slave, entirely depend- 
ent upon what "they" will say as to this or that ex- 
penditure, never upon the consideration of the real 
good to be derived. 

Only by keeping an accurate record of expenditures 
can one follow the outgo so as to find how the stand- 
ards of the family measure up to the ideal. Without 
indisputable facts in black and white one is easily de- 
ceived. It is natural to feel that economy is being 
practiced when many a coveted article is resisted. The 
year's bill with its record of many other indulgences 
is sometimes a rude but wholesome awakening. 
Twenty-fivfe cents to-day and another to-morrow for 
some luxury in food seems too slight to take account 
of, but multiplied by three hundred and sixty-five the 
increase in the food-expense becomes- a considerable 
sum. It is well to look frequently to aggregated ex- 
penses like these. 

In arriving at a basis for the classification of ex- 
penditures it is helpful to compare those of a large 
number of families, studying the avenues of expense 
to determine in what way the maximum of health ; 
physical, mental, and moral is reached. Several such 
comparative studies have been made and a few typical 
budgets have been selected to illustrate the method 
pursued in attacking the problem. 

In making a classification of one's own, it will be 
most useful to decide upon a tentative division of the 
year's income under the heads which seem most valu- 



14 



HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 



15 



able to keep as separate divisions. These proportions 
may be studied in per cents, or the salary for each 
week or month or quarter may be divided and the 
amount for each division reserved to defray the ex- 
penses which arise in connection with that division 
during the period. As time goes on one is able to 
see how accurately the provisional division was made 
to fit the needs. 

Such a theoretical division should always be de- 
cided upon as a check to undue expenditure, as one 
will try to bring the actual expense within the limits 
that seemed wise to set when all things were taken 
into account at the time of deciding upon the propor- 
tions. 

A regular income is the fortunate arrangement in 
many families. This tends to develop thrift and to 
remove the tendency to run up bills leading to debts. 
The tendency for such is to live up to the limit of the 
income and the division for saving and higher life in 
general is usually small. It is found that salaried 
people seldom get deeply in debt, but also seldom 
accumulate very much. 

For those without regular and known income 
the problem of apportioning expenditures is very dif- 
ficult. The only safe course is to determine upon a 
definite minimum income. The surplus will then be 
an unexpected pleasure. 

The actual per cent of the income allowed for each 
division will depend chicfl}- upon two things ; namely, 



Theoretical 
Division 



Tendency 
with Regular 
Income 



Division 
of Income 



415 



i6 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Real Values 



Budgets 



the size of the income, and the ideals or standards of 
the family. The necessities of life must be provided 
and if the income is small, barely enough to cover these 
needs, there is little choice left but to spend all for 
them. Yet as a matter of fact, choice is possible for 
most families. While a large wage-earning class are 
receiving smaller incomes than one would wish, at 
the same time we find choice playing an important 
role in determining the purchases of the day laborer, 
as well as of those who are not limited for money. In 
fact, it is with those who can least afford to be gov- 
erned by caprices that the most pitiful lawlessness in 
these things prevails because of ignorance. 

Enlightenment through education in real values is 
needed by all alike, that correct divisions may be made 
and lived up to, and that the division for higher life, 
most often cut to a discreditably low per cent, may be 
recognized and properly provided for. 

The following table from TJic Cost of Living by 
Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives some actual and typical 
family budgets: 



416 



HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
Typical Budgets 



17 







Percentage for 




c« d .• 


t^Q . 




« M rj 


Family Income Per Year. 




nd C 
; to a; 
Work 


Qg E: 
s, Fu 
s, etc 


bi) 


1-5 d ►-- 






=^Sfl 


■t^ t» fcc 


a 


^>'S 




t3 



ent 
Far 
froi 











^ 


« 





6 


w 


$3,098, three adults, two chil- 










dren 


27.5 


21.1 


16.8 


10. 


24.6 


2,500 (Mass.)-, three adults, 


no children 


25. 


25. 


13. 


13. 


25. 


2,500 (Mass.), two adults, one 












child, much company. 


32. 


18. 


18. 


10. 


22. 


1 ,980 (St. Louis) , four adults. 












two children 


36.3 


24.2 


30.9 


18. 


50 


950 (Mass.), two adults. 


three children 


20. 


19. 


16. 


15. 


10. 

r 26.1 
,' Travel, 
] Sickness, etc. 


600 (Boston) , two adults 


(women) , two children. 


23. 


26. 


4. 


5. 


535 (N. Y.), two adults. 










I 15.9 


three children. . . 


55.2 


22.4 


5.3 


9.4 


7.7 


312 "mean" Englishman, 












two adults, three chil- 












dren 


55.2 
63. 


15.5 
12. 


8.9 
5. 


13.1 
16. 


5. 


300, Dr. Engell's estimates 


From Cost of Living, Mrs. 












E. H. Richards. 













From these budgets it will be seen that little choice 
is given the families of most limited means. The 
necessities cost about the same for all. It is in the 
range of luxuries that the greatest divergence is to 
be found. Only there can limitations be wisely set. 
In those where choice is possible, one observes a va- 
riety of results, showing that one family preferred to 
economize in one way, another in another. The com- 
forts to be secured through increase of rent appeal to 



Necessities 
Uniform 



417 



i8 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Extravagance 



Ideal 
Budgets 



one, those of additional service, another, and so 
throughout the list. 

Extravagance is most frequently found in the Food 
and Operating expense divisions. Individual extrav- 
agance occurs most frequently in clothes. 

With these actual and typical budgets in mind note 
the Budgets, as suggested by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, 
which give the ideal theoretical division of incomes 
varying from $500 to $4000. The interest and profit 
to the housewife in the comparison of these widely 
differing standards will be the stimulus to keep sys- 
tematic accounts, that she may be able to determine 
the percentages of her own family expenses. Such 
an account with its dav of reckonino^ is an excellent 
moral support since one will learn to think twice 
over the temptation to spend for personal gratifica- 
tion, or for those things which have at best little 
to recommend them either for pleasure or profit. 



418 



HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
Ideal Budgets 



19 



Family Income. 


Percentage for 








Operating Ex- 
penses, Fuel, 
Wages, etc. 


.9 


6 


Higher Life, 
Book, Travel. 
Charity, Sav- 
ings, irisu'nce 


Two adults and two or three children 
(equal to four adults) : 

Ideal Division— 

$3,000 to $4.000 


25 
25 
30 
45 
60 


20 ± 

20=fc 

20 

15 

15 


15 ± 
15 ± 
10 
10 
5 


15 ± 
20 ± 
15 
10 
10 


25 
20 
25 
20 
10 


2,000 to 1,000 


800 to 1,000 


500 to 800 


Under $500 


From Cost of Living, Mrs. E. H. Rich- 
ards. 



Four laws have been formulated by Dr. Engel, 
which state the tendency in the changes of per cents 
noted in such budgets as we have been considering: 

DR. ENGEL'S LAWS 

1. The proportion between expenditure and nutri- 
ment grows in geometric progression in adverse ratio 
to well-being ; in other words, the higher the income, 
the smaller is the per cent of cost of subsistence. 

2. Clothing assumes and keeps a distinctly con- 
stant proportion in the whole. 

3. Lodging, warming and lighting have an in- 
variable proportion, whatever the income. 

4. The more the income increases the greater is 
the proportion of the different expenses which ex- 
press the degree of well-being. 



419 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

DIVISION OF INCOME CHAET 
Typical Family of Two Adults and Three Children 



360O 




Running Expenses include Wages, Fuel, Light, Ice, Etc. With $1 000 
Income the Children Would be Educated in the Public Schools. ' 

The above chart was adapted from a large colored 
chart prepared under the direction of Mrs. E. H. 
Richards for the Mary Lowell Stone Exhibit on Home 
Economics. 



420 



RENT 



21 



The classes of expenditure discussed in the follow- 
ing pages are those which, on the whole, best repre- 
sent the different divisions into which money expendi- 
ture may fall. These are Rent, or its equivalent paid 
for shelter. Operating Expenses, such as fuel, light, 
wages and repairs. Food, Clothes and Higher Life. 
The latter includes all that ministers to mental and 
moral well-being, as education, travel, amusements, 
charities, savings and insurance. These will be con- 
sidered in order. 



Division of 
Household 
Expenditures 



RENT 

The question of buying or renting a house which 
shall offer shelter and make a home for the family 
is often a difficult one in these days. Formerly private 
possession was much more universal than at the pres- 
ent time. It is more or less impossible within a wide 
radius of the center of our largest cities to-day to 
buy a single house at any price. For this reason peo- 
ple are more and more forced to rent, and must share 
a house with other families, usually, either in double 
houses, apartments or flats. Many of the objections 
which are to be urged against boarding are equally 
forceful for this manner of living. The too close 
proximity of others is a misfortune, yet it is preferable 
to boarding, since some privacy and individuality may 
still be preserved. Some, feeling the natural instinct 
of ownership too strongly to be content to give it up 
so completely, will prefer to go into the suburbs and 



Buying 

or 

Renting 



421 



22 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Disadvantages 

of 

Buying 



Advantage 
9f Ownership 



rely upon electric cars or other means of transporta- 
tion, for g^oing to and returning from business. 

The difficulties which present themselves when one 
considers buying, may be summed up under the fol- 
lowing heads: 

1. Scarcity of available houses in places of any 
size. 

2. Greatly increased cost, due to increasing valua- 
tion of property. 

3. Tendency of fluctuating business, causing 
changes in plans or place of residence, necessitating 
the disposal of a house at a sacrifice. 

4. Unforeseen changes in business centers in our 
rapidly growing towns, and cities, greatly affecting 
the desirability of the location for a home. 

5. Constant expenditures required to keep a house 
in repair, often in excess of rent. 

6. Decreasing tendency on the part of young peo- 
ple to have a saving fund which can be used or which 
they are willing to use for purchasing a home. 

The advantages of owning a home when it is at all 
possible or feasible, far outweigh these disadvantages. 
Renting tends to develop demoralizing habits of care- 
lessness and indifference. The word "home" should 
have a meaning for us vastly deeper and richer than 
can be bounded by four walls, it is true, or than can 
be centered in material or outward covering, yet aU 
such aids prove vital in developing and strengthening 
the highest regard for the name with children. The 



422 



RENT 



23 



man or woman is to be profoundly pitied to whose 
mind the name does not recall a definite and loved spot 
as the home of childhood. 

Nothing contributes more surely and steadily to the 
development of a worthy citizen and through him of a 
worthy community than proprietorship in his home. 
It removes the temptation to move from place to place 
— always a great hindrance to the development of an 
ideal home. The family that rents tends to disregard 
property rights and to enter with less pride or con- 
cern into the neighborhood life. As soon as a home 
however humble, is acquired, a pride is taken in 
it and its surroundings and the sense of personal re- 
sponsibility for the tone of the community is much 
keener. 

In providing for shelter either by buying or renting, 
three factors should play a part, (i) sanitary require- 
ments, (2) those things which, like location and archi- 
tectural appearance, answer the social requirements, 
(3) and standards of living. Sanitary requiiements 
may well be placed first. Money is well and econ- 
omically expended which secures the best possible 
sanitary conditions. Failure at this point has cost 
many families far more than the two or three dollars' 
difiference per month in rents by adding doctor's bills 
— most uneconomical of all expenditures — to the 
lowering of vitality and decreasing of efiiciency. 

Distinction should be made between essentials and 
non-essentials, between showy cheats and real worth. 



Leg-itimate 
Expenditure 



Essentials 
and Non- 
Essentials 



423 



24 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

Bright gilding does not make good plumbing nor 
does an especially fine porch bespeak a carefully con- 
structed cellar. Some of the principle requisites are: 
Ample air space for each individual, (300 cu. ft. for 
each person having been found to be the lowest amount 
permissible according to sanitary rules) ; light, fresh 
air and water in abundance. Drainage conditions 
should be above suspicion within and without. A 
house so constructed as to require the minimum of 
labor to care for is also a wise and economical con- 
sideration. The housewife will be surprised in her 
search for these requirements to find what poor pro- 
visions exist in most houses. The demand for the 
best sanitary conditions has been so slight up to the 
present time, that those who build have not found 
it essential to give them large attention, since selling 
or renting so seldom depends upon these things. 
Reasons If a house is found which is offered at a price less 

°Price than others which are similar in the vicinity, one 
of three reasons may be found to account for it. 
Either it is an old house out of repair, or is m an 
undesirable neighborhood, or it is simply cheaply con- 
structed. In weighing its merits great care should 
be exercised to distinguish as to the cause. If it is 
such as to be a menace to health, physical or moral, 
one has no right to choose it. If it will cost more 
• to put it in good condition to live in than the difference, 
or if operating expenses, as fuel, will be increased 
more than enough to offset the difference, then it is 



424 



RENT 



25 



poor economy to select it; but if the difference is 
merely one in incidentals such as more or less expen- 
sive woods for finishing, etc., then it may be wise to 
sacrifice a little at this point rather than in something 
more vital. 

In building, the demands of modern life require, 
not including cost of land, an expenditure of about 
$1000 per person, or $4000 for the typical family of 
five persons. It is easy to vary this to the two ex- 
tremes. In most localities, $10,000 should build all 
that any family could use for themselves alone so far 
as essentials go. 

The cost of building varies so greatly that no very 
definite estimates can be given. In parts of the United 
States where building materials and labor are high the 
cost of a house may be nearly double that in places 
where prices are low. The recent experience of others 
or the conservative estimate of a local architect or con- 
tractor is the only safe guide. 

The difference in expense too often represents other 
than legitimate reasons: A large expenditure fre- 
quently represents bad taste and showy ornamentation 
rather than more abundant sunlight, fresh air and 
cleanly surroundings. A good rule to bear in mind 
is that ''less should be spent for the mere house and 
more for what goes on in it — the real life." 

In deciding what may be legitimately spent for rent 
one may safely estimate whatever is necessary to se- 
cure the requisites for health. It ought to be possible 



Cost of 
Building 



Rental 



425 



26 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Location 
and Rent 



to secure safe surroundings at a cost not exceeding 20 
per cent of any income between $500 and $5000 a year, 
not including the expense of heating and Hghting. If 
more than that is necessary, it is an indication that 
the sanitary standards in the community are not as 
high as they should be. As a matter of fact low 
standards which the individual alone is powerless to 
correct often force the expense to 25 per cent to secure 
safety. 

The location of a house in its relation to place of 
business, school, etc., should be considered. If at a dis- 
tance so that carfares are necessary these should be 
reckoned as a part of the rent. In considering the rent 
of a heated apartment about $5 per month should be 
credited for the heat, in addition to janitor service and 
hot water if these are furnished. 



SuTjreme 

Tescs of the 

Housewife 



OPERATING EXPENSES 

Operating expenses consist, for the most part, of 
the necessary expenditure to keep a house warmed, 
lighted, clean and in repair. The skill with which 
these expenses are managed is the supreme test of 
the ability of the housewife, materially speaking. 
Other decisions may be turned ofif more easily or at- 
tended to once for all, and there is some end to them. 
In these the highest success can only be realized by 
the woman who has a genius for details, who will 
allow nothing to escape her consideration, yet who has 
the ability to carry them with a degree of ease and 



426 



OPERATING EXPENSES 



27 



mastery so that it will not be apparent to others, at 
least, that she finds them perplexing or burdensome. 
The over-anxious, wearied woman is as lacking in the 
element of success as the careless and heedless one. 
She may be able, through her greater watchfulness, to 
save more money, but family happiness is perhaps 
more endangered, through the depression of spirits and 
the friction which result, than in the other case. To 
remove friction and reduce to a harmonious unit are 
parts of what she must accomplish through the direc- 
tion of the operating expenses. 

The same standards should control in deciding the 
avenues of expenditure here as in selecting a house or 
deciding any of the other divisions. Health, comfort 
and happiness in the highest and broadest conception 
of these words should be the only factors having 
weight. Whether my neighbor has a maid should be 
nothing to me in my decision as to the necessity of 
having one. To be met at the door by a suitably at- 
tired official ought not to be as important as it would 
sometimes seem to be, in leading us to decide whether 
we have had a pleasant and profitable call on a friend. 
All these things are well in their place, but they are 
by no means so vital that one should sacrifice far more 
important things and magnify these out of all propor- 
tion. 

Much of the necessary operating expense is deter- 
mined when the house is selected, and the two should 
always be considered together. If the number of 



V/orry 



Determining 
Factors 



427 



28 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Approximate 

Cost for 

Service 



Wage 



rooms Is limited, the expense of caring for them will 
be correspondingly less. If the house is conveniently 
arranged so that the work may be swiftly performed, 
the work of each helper will ''go further" than if much 
time is wasted through unnecessary steps or move- 
ments. So, also, in the expense of heating. One 
should consider whether the house is arranged com- 
pactly or not, what the loss of heat through exposure 
of rooms will be, etc., so that the cost of heating can 
be correctly reckoned with. 

It has been estimated that, for an ordinary city 
house, the sum paid annually for wages of servants 
should be equal to one-half the rental value of the 
house. This can only be realized, however, by those 
who are willing to simplify their manner of living so 
as to reduce expenses more than the average at the 
present time, or by those who give assistance in the 
duties. . 

When servants are kept the cost of the other operat- 
ing expenses will be increased without corresponding 
satisfaction. In general, they should be kept equal to 
the amount paid as wages. An excellent standard to 
keep in mind is the maintenance of the ''maximum of 
efficiency at minimum cost." It is true economy to 
expend for what will remove friction or prove time- 
saving. 

The wages of a general helper for housework vary 
according to location, from $3.00 per week or less in 
some small towns in the East and through the middle 



428 



Hour 
Work 



OPERATING EXPENSES 29 

West to $4.00 or $5.00 in the larger cities. This must 
be doubled in allowing for board and room and for 
the additional outlay because of more wasteful cook- 
ing and more careless handling of furnishings. One 
housekeeper who kept a careful record of expenses 
both when with and without help, found the weekly 
expense from one-fourth to one-third more when help 
was employed. 

The average cost of hiring by the hour for work 
done in the house is from 15 to 25 cents per hour in- 
cluding the midday meal, if the helper remains over 
that time. Laundry work for unstarched, flat pieces, 
averages 25 cents per dozen. 

When all the main avenues of expense have been 
carefully considered to eliminate excessive or unnec- wastM 
essary expenditure, there remains for the thrifty 
housewife the daily exercise of much watchful care 
over the "littles" which otherwise astonishingly run 
up the expense. A three-burner chandelier ablaze in- 
stead of one Welsbach burner which would give better 
light at less than a third the cost ; a range fire opened, 
at the loss of at least a hod of coal, to prepare a 
warm dish for supper when the use of a gas or oil 
stove for a short time would accomplish the desired 
result much more cheaply; daily orders in piece-meal 
over a limited telephone service, because the difference 
is not considered sufficiently important to necessitate 
the thought required to combine all the orders for that 
day, or for several days, in one message: these are 



Small 



429 



30 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

all trifles in themselves, but five cents here and ten 
there make a surprisingly large difference in the sum 
total The difference between skilful, thoughtful out- 
lay and careless spending, is to be measured in the 
added comforts to be secured by the one who learns 
the secret of successful management in this group 
of expenses. 

FOOD 

The influence of food upon the welfare of the house- 
hold must be first considered in apportioning the 
share of income rightly devoted to it. In referring 
to the budgets w^e find that as the income decreases the 
percentage devoted to food increases. Why is this, or 
why should it be so? It is because the life of the in- 
dividual depends upon his nourishment. His shelter 
may be poor, his clothing inadequate • for his needs, 
but food he must have and upon proper food depends 
his capacity for doing work and doing it well. 
Proper The child must be properly nourished that it may 

be a strong little animal, growing into healthy happy 
youth. The adult must be well nourished to be an ef- 
ficient member of the community, whether as a wage- 
earner or as a household spender. The food supply 
must be right for errors and wrong doing here show 
their effects in a weakened power to perform work 
or resist disease. In this lies the justificatoin of the 
poor man who possibly spends two-thirds of his in- 
come for food. 



Food 



430 



FOOD 



31 



The wide variation, however, as shown in the bud- 
gets, does not indicate proper nourishment in one case, 
improper food in another. Over-nutrition is often as 
dangerous as under-nutrition and the cost of food does 
not determine its nutritive vakie. It by no means fol- 
lows that because a family has large butcher's and 
grocer's bills it is therefore better nourished. The 
same causes affect the cost of foods as influence the 
price of other commodities. The demand for and 
scarcity of any article; being in or out of season; cost 
of transportation; loss through waste in foods that 
deteriorate quickly ; fancy price asked for certain rare 
flavors, all these determine price outside of any con- 
sideration of nutritive value. 

Bullock gives five ways in which he estimates that 
one-fifth of the money expended for food is actually 
wasted. 

1. Needlessly expensive material, providing little 
nutrition. 

2. A great deal thrown away. 

3. Bad preparation. 

4. Failure to select rightly according to season, 
j. Badly constructed ovens. 

In 1900 when Mrs. Richard's book on The Cost of 
Living was published experiments in dietaries were 
made and the cost of the raw material required for so 
many persons a day estimated. The conclusions 
reached at that time were that twenty-five or thirty 
cents per person a day is ample to supply all the 



f'^urces 
of Wide 
Variation 



Waste of 
Money 
in Food 



Cost per 
Person 



431 



32 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



High Cost 
of Food 



Sources 
•f Waste 



physical demands of one whose tastes have not been 
perverted by wrong habits of eating. Good, sub- 
stantial living, meeting all the needs of people of sim- 
ple habits, can be secured at less than that. When 
the expense exceeds that sum it is due to one or more 
of the following reasons: 

1. Waste. 

2. Buying out of season. 

3. Choice of food of which there is a limited sup- 
ply therefore price is high. 

4. Perishable food stuffs. 

5. Fads or fashions in dishes. 

6. High priced products because of choice flavors 
as ''Gilt Edged Butter," or food which is ''in season" 
but a short time, as venison. 

Since the year in which the experiments and in- 
vestigations were carried on certain staple food stuffs 
have increased nearly twenty per cent in price, so 
that the margin for the same bill of fare now should 
be wider, or from twenty-five to thirty-five cents per 
person a day. 

The housewife should carefully consider these esti- 
mates and the causes most fruitful of waste in the 
household. Far too lavish provision is often made in 
ordering. Study and observation must be given to the 
necessary quantity of meats, vegetables, etc., to be pro- 
vided and served. Large portions are left to be improp- 
erly warmed over, wasted in the kitchen, or thrown 
away altogether. Waste in the household arises mainly 



432 



FOOD 33 

from lack of thought, planning, or carefulness In de- 
tail, just as in any other business. A study of foods 
and food values is necessary in order to know what 
less expensive material may be provided to sup- 
ply the same need, but above all else must the house- 
wife who desires to make a study of these things, 
and reduce the waste in the household realize that no 
waste is greater than poor material, illy prepared. The 
more knowledge, the more science used in the selec- • 

tion and preparation of food for the table should mean 
more, not less appetizing results. 

It is of course easier to provide a good table for Numbers 
eight people on $2.40 per day than for four people at 
$1.20. It must be remembered that many people live 
well on less ; many more are well nourished on much 
less. 

The pecuniary economy of food is seen in the ac- 
companying charts, and those articles which would be 
classed under unnecessary expense may be easily sepa- 
rated from the more legitimate. 

Of course the price paid for food cannot be regu- Aesthetic 
lated entirely by a consideration of nutriment alone. 
It must satisfy aesthetic demands as well. Food must 
be enjoyed in order to be thoroughly well digested. 
This is a strong argument in favor of a moderate use 
of animal foods. Although vastly more expensive 
than vegetable foods, they do gratify the palate of 
most people in ways which vegetable foods do not. 
This fact together with their superiority in being more 



Demands 



433 



34 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
Chart of Composition of Foods 



Nutrients. 



Protein. Fats- Carbo- Mineral 
hydrates, matters. 



Non-nutrients. 



Water. Refuse. 



Fuel value. 
Calories. 




'WUfioulbone. 



434 



FOOD 
Chart of Pecuniary Economy of Food 

I^vtei/t. faia Carhohydtata FXul FaltU^. 



35 




From Farmers' Bnlletin, No. 142. 



435 



36 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Real 
Purpose 



Legitimate 
Expenditure 



easily and completely digested are valid reasons for 
paying somewhat more for the sake of securing them. 

CLOTHING 

Clothing, like food, should be considered first of 
all in its relation to the possible increase of health and 
efficiency. Like the function of food, this is too much 
lost sight .of at the present time while the aesthetic 
side of the subject is receiving an undue share of 
emphasis. The cost of clothing is too largely the re- 
sult of an attempt to gratify the desire to please the 
world at large, rather than of protecting the body. 
We all know too many instances of the rashest ex- 
cesses to which this may lead, destroying all hope of 
realizing higher and worthier ideals. A safe-guard 
to such excess lies in an intelligent training and 
thoughtful study of these things. 

Sufficient and suitable protection from clothing, so 
that one is enabled to meet the varying changes of cli- 
mate without loss of energy, is a distinct advantage, 
olTering grounds for reasonable expenditure. This 
should debar either too scant provision, or too great 
excess, which weakens power of resistance. The 
aesthetic has a legitimate place in the consideration, 
but should be subordinate to health, if the two ever 
seem to conflict. There is, as we know, the greatest 
possible difference in people in ability to "make a lit- 
tle go a long way" in providing satisfactorily for cloth- 
ing. Knowledge and care will aid greatly in helping 



436 



HIGHER LIFE 



Z7 



one to conform to the laws both of health and beauty. 
A pleasing, becoming color or style is little, if any, 
more expensive than one which is unbecoming. One 
should seek to develop true individual taste and ex- 
pression, relying less upon the not infallible dictum 
of dress-makers. To secure clothing, then, which shall 
be a protection from heat and cold should be the first 
motive. Along with this should go a recognition that 
the outer garments may be and should be a means of 
contributing to the pleasure of others, through a cor- 
rect selection of pleasing colors and graceful forms. 
Both these may be entirely legitimate considerations, 
but there should not result, from over emphasis, a 
dwarfing of the more important things in life. 

HIGHER LIFE 

The preceding divisions have to do chiefly with 
those things which support and protect the physical 
well-being. The fifth important provision should be 
for the higher life, or the demands of the intellectual 
and spiritual nature. The most important business 
of any life is to develop this side to its highest possi- 
bilities and to find its fullest expression. Other con- 
siderations are in reality subordinate to this. 

Unless a definite allowance is set aside for the pur- 
pose material demands encroach until all is spent. 
Even if something more is realized each year than is 
spent, the money itself seems too often to be the 
most valuable possession, rather than the comforts and 



Good 
Taste 



Necessary 
Consideratiop 



Value 

of Definite 

Allowance 



437 



38 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Realizing 
Ideals 



Wide 
Range 



aesthetic ideals which it might secure. It is a battle, 
in these days of materialism, to reserve one-fourth of 
an income for the satisfaction of the needs of the 
higher nature, yet there is no greater need in our 
nation than that of more families \vho realize the im- 
perativeness of doing it, and who independently insist 
upon proving it to be possible. Those who resolutely 
decide upon this course tend to more refined living, 
give ''more thought to the meaning of life, to the object 
for which all exertion should tend, more thought for 
the manner of accomplishing a given result, less for 
the money value of it." 

It means making a place for ideals, recognizing their 
necessary place in life, and resolutely setting one's face 
toward realizing them. Such a purpose serves as an 
admirable check to the gratification of lower desires 
and unnecessary spending, while whatever is found 
to be necessary and worthy will have a double value 
because of the thought and care exercised in the de- 
cision. 

There is a very wide range possible for different 
tastes in ministering to the higher life. One will pre- 
fer travel, another literature, a third art, while church 
and charity must find place in all higher life. It mat- 
ters, perhaps, less what particular side is developed 
than that there shall be conscious effort toward a 
higher and a fuller life, and that choice rather than 
idle drifting rules. It is true that all altruistic motives 
wliich look to the good of another, be he kin or other- 



438 



HIGHER Ul'E 



39 



wise, are more full of elevating" influence upon a life 
than those which seek merely one's own highest good. 
One should gain the habit of choosing those things 
that endure, and have abiding value rather than those 
of momentary or temporary advantage. 

Even when guided by an impulse to make provision 
for one's family, it is to be borne in mind that the best 
possible investment which can be made for a child is 
a liberal education. All that anyone in normal health 
and strength should need is a thorough preparation 
to do his or her work efficiently, with motives toward 
the best things which life has to offer and the possi- 
bilities of a better life than his parents have had. 
Too liberal provision is often seen to destroy incentive 
and the things of highest value are cheapened when 
they cost little effort. Progress can only be made 
through striving. Conscious effort is as necessary for 
the health of mind as for health of body. For this 
reason it is best that what we enjoy should be the 
result of choice and denial, and we should learn early 
to pay for what we get. A surplus should be reserved 
against emergencies, that a feeling of independence 
may be fostered, yet this should not be insisted upon 
to the point of crippling life. 

As to ways of saving, the field is large. Some 
methods employed at the present time are to be com- 
mended in highest terms. Against others too severe 
condemnation cannot be passed. Among those forms 
which are safe may be classed life insurance, savings 



Wise 
Investment 



Ways of 
Saving 



439 



40 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Life 
Insurance 



Railroad 
Securities 



banks, loans on real estate and investments in stocks 
and bonds. 

In selecting, one should consider whether the busi- 
ness which the company is transacting is legitimate 
and also whether it is probably permanent because 
it serves a real public use with elements of growth 
and lasting development, or whether it is merely a 
"flash in the pan" scheme. Again, it is important to 
know whether the company has sufficient capital to 
make the business a safe one, and whether the man- 
agement, so far as can be determined, is wise and 
honest. 

Life insurance is becoming an increasingly popular 
form of saving. With a reliable company, and under 
some of the favorable arrangements possible at the 
present time, such as terminal endowment policies, 
yielding a fair interest for money invested, as well 
as insurance, it is without doubt one of the best 
methods. Some find the imperative demand to meet 
the annual payments a ver}- helpful check upon ex- 
penditure. There is not the risk of loss through fail- 
ure to pay at any time which formerly existed, since, 
in emergencies, money can be loaned on the insurance 
or one can secure at some sacrifice the return of the 
amount paid in. 

Railroad securities are possibly first in value, such 
lionds, if good, being unquestionable security and 
yielding good return. There is little fluctuation in 
value, and the rei)orts are frequent and controlled by 



440 



]II(,HI:I< JJJIi 



4r 



state law, so that one may know the exact condition 
of the investment at any time. 

Loans on buildings, or real estate are excellent 
forms of investment, if one knows beyond qi^estion the 
value of the property secured. These may not be as 
readily transferred or their value realized, as with 
stocks and bonds. 

In general it may be said that for the ordinary in- 
vestors in our country any investment }'ielding over 
4 1-2 or 5 per cent is to be classed as a risk, and is 
not consistent with sound finance. A safe investment 
yielding that return is far wiser than a (juestionable 
one promising more. A high interest rate is' almost in- 
variably, in the very nature of things, a warning of 
insecurity. Shrewd capitalists of the country are cer- 
tain to know of any especially favorable opportunities 
and seize upon them, if desirable, so that the small 
investors should not look for phenomenal returns. 

The frequent reports of failures, and cases of those 
involved who have met with pitiable losses emphasizes 
the danger and evils of speculation. These often rise 
in the form of local crazes, with heated booming for 
a short lived career, or as investment m some gold or 
copper mines at too great distance to be personally 
investigated. These should be condemned and avoided 
as almost without exception dangerous. Women are 
found to be particularly susceptible to such alluring 
opportunities to ''get rich quick" because of failure in 
training in sound business principles. 



Mortgagee 



Safe 
Interest 



Get-Rich- 
Quick 
Ventures 



441 



Value 
and Necessity 



What 

Accounts 

Should 

Show 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 

The management of tlie money affairs of a family is 
usually the most perplexing part of its domestic prob- 
lem. Yet, in spite of this fact, the least candid study 
and thought are given to it. The value of accurate 
accounts, as well as their necessity, is recognized in 
the entire business world. Few associations of indi- 
viduals are organized for any specific purpose without 
careful regard to the maintenance of the proper rela- 
tion of income and outgo. The value and importance 
of this is no less to the housekeeper than to the banker 
or grocer. The appallingly frequent examples of reck- 
less disregard in this respect, leading to a constantly 
increasing number of unpaid bills and final ruin, ought 
to teach the sad lesson of the unthrifty. Yet statisti- 
cians tell us that at least one-half of our w^ll-to-do 
families are seriously handicapped by debt. Along 
with that fact should be emphasized another — the 
number of families in which accounts of personal and 
family expenses are kept is astonishingly small, and 
in few instances where such records are keot i<^ suffi- 
cient study given to them to lead to advance in stand- 
ard of living from year to year. 

In conducting any business it is of the greatest 
importance (i) to follow the receipts and expenses, 
(2) to keep a record of investments and (3) to deter- 
mine at the end of the year, or shorter period, the 
results of the business and the exact condition of the 

42 



442 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 43 

capital. The modern household is an intricate business 
concern. Its financial administration demands as per- 
fect exactness, order and method as any other, if it is 
to attain in any degree its possible efficiency. Such 
exactness alone renders the accounts of an\' real worth. 
They may be made of priceless value in directing the 
activities and ministering to the comfort of all in the 
home. 

The question who shall be head bookkeeper and ^j^^ 
director of the household expenditures will probably Keeper* 
be best decided by determining which grown member 
of the family has a genius for accounts. It naturally 
falls to the housekeeper as the one who can manage 
best and has the most intimate acquaintance with the 
entire situation. In any case, it should be one who 
loves it or who sees in it possibilities large enough to 
create a willingness to give the necessary thought and 
time to make it a success. It has been made a profitable 
and interesting business training in some families for 
growing boys and girls. Possibly promotion from 
the keeping of their own personal accounts to those 
of the houj-ehold might be made an excellent stimulus. 
With a clear, convenient system, adapted to the needs 
of the particular records to be kept, and with a busi- 
ness-like promptness in entering each night the trans- 
actions of the day while fresh in mind, what is often 
looked upon as a perplexing hardship may become an 
interesting study. A helpful aid to memory is a card 
neatly fitted into the purse, upon which sufficient entry 



443 



44 



lIOUSIillOLI) MANAGEMENT 



Systems 



Envelope 
Method 



may be made at the time of the expenditure to assist 
in recalhng the details when they are wanted for enter- 
ing in the account. A shopping list filled out with 
prices as one purchases is a useful aid to memory. 

The system employed in keeping the accounts may 
be very simple. The only necessary requirement is 
that it be sufficiently complete to record in concise, 
available form the necessary facts to indicate clearly 
the details of income and outgo. It must be possible 
to compare these two sides of the account at any time 
in order to prove that the balance as shown by the 
account corresponds with the cash on hand. 

Various systems have been devised and successfully 
used. The efficiency of anyone depends quite as much, 
perhaps, upon the thorough, painstaking effort of the 
user to bring it to its utmost point of efficiency and 
utility as upon the system itself. 

Some find a series of envelopes a very convenient 
form of keeping the records. Each envelope is labeled 
with the name of the particular division of the 
expenses which it is to hold. After it has been decided 
what proportion shall be spent for each division the 
sum is ])ut into its envelope, to l)c drawn as needed. 

A slip of paper or card in the envelope records each 
addition, and the expenditures from that envelope 
during the week or month, or a cash account is also 
kept of the household expenses and personal account. 
Any division like the following may be made wifli the 
envelopes : 



444 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 45 

Suppose a family consisting of a man and wife live 
in a steam-heated flat and have an income of $30 a 
week. The following divisions might be made each 
week : 

Rent $7.00 

Household expenses 7,00 

Fuel and light i.oo 

Man's personal allowance and expcni>es, 

including lunches and car fares 5.00 

Madam's personal allowance 4.00 

Extras and emergencies, including dentist, 

doctor, etc 2.00 

Church and charities i .00 

Insurance and savings bank 3.00 

$30.00 

For anuisements there may be a separate envelope, 
or, as there are four months in which there will be 
five payments to the envelope, these extra four pay- 
ments may be used for amusements in connection with 
household expenses. 

A system like this has the advantage of keeping 
always before one just what is at hand to draw from. 
The leading disadvantages over other methods is its 
cumbrousness. It involves the keeping of a considerable 
amount of money on hand and also presents a great 
temptation to borrow from one envelope to .another 
for making change, etc., which is likely to lead to 
confusion of accounts. 



Example 



Advantages 
and 

Disadvan- 
tages 



445 



-16 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGliMENT 



Cards 

and 

Envelopes 



Journal 



If the records for the envelopes were kept on cards, 
these niii];-ht he filed in a card index for comparison 
and permanent reference as explained later. 

On the whole, a system l)y which the accounts arc 
finally entered in l)0()ks intended for that purpose 
proves most satisfactory. Such hooks may he pro- 
cured already ruled for entries, or a hlank hook can 
easily he ruled as desired. For a complete record the 
same hooks are useful as for other accountants — a 
■journal, ledger and 1)alance sheet. The journal and 
ledger may well he comhined in one hook, as will be 
explained in connection with Table III. 

The household account records exchanges whereby 
the housewife ouys the goods or services which her 
household needs, giving- in exchange of her means. 
The simplest statement of such exchanges is made in 
a journal. A single ])age is used to enter both receipts 
and expenses. Thus : 

TABLE I 



1904. 

Jan. 1 
2 

H 

.•> 

8 
• 10 

1 




Received. 


Paid. 


Cash ill hand 


?30.00 
50.00 

$70.00' 
84.30 


?1.50 
8 00 

14.00 
4.75 

.50 
1 35 
1,10 
1 50 
1.70 


Washlnj,' 


Grocer 


(\)al 


Flour. 


Salary 


Car fares 


C -leaning 


Eggs 


Washing 


Potatoes 


HalaiUT on linml 


$34.30 


$35.70 



446 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 



47 



If purchases are itemized elsewhere for reference, 
such an account as this may contain sufficient data. 
It is possible to itemize more fully in this journal 
record if desired, as is illustrated in Table II. 



TABLE II 



Itemized 
Accounts 



1903. 



Feb. 1 
2 

3 
5 



By balance bi'ought forward . . . 
To washing 

" 2 tons coal at $7 per ton 

" 3 bu. potatoes at 80c. per bu. 

'• 5 doz. eggs at 22c. per doz. . . 

'• cleaning one day. 

' ' rent for January 

" 8 lbs. beef at 14c. per lb 

" washing 

By salary 

To car fares — 



Totals 

(Balance, ff8T.23.) 



Cr. 


Dr. 


Daily 
Totals. 


$75.70 


ifl..50 






14.00 


$15.50 




2.40 






1.10 


3. 50 




1.25 






15.00 






1.12 


17.37 




1.50 


1..50 


50.00 








,60 


.60 


!rl25.70 




$38.47 



In the second table it will be noted that the terms 
usually employed in bookkeeping are introduced. 
These are easily understood. The term "By" intro- 
duces all terms belonging to the credit or receipt 
column ; the "To," items of the debit or expense col- 
umn. The abbreviation "Cr." for credit heads the 
column of receipts, indicating that the house account 
has that much more to its credit, while the "Dr." 
abbreviation for debit shows to what extent the house 
has become indebted or has placed itself under obliga- 
tion for benefits received. 

Table II also includes a column for daily totals, 
which carries the account a step further in efficiency. 
In the final footing up of the columns these totals are 



Terms 



Daily 
Totals 



447 



48 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Use of 
Ledger 



Credit 
Accounts 



a convenience, since it is always easier to add a short 
list of large figures than a long column of small items. 
It is sometimes helpful also to be able to refer to the 
entire day's expenditures. 

As will be readily seen, the details of expenditures, 
when entered as above in the journal, are not easily 
referred to. One could at any time make a summary 
of any division which would show the amount spent 
for any one class of purchases, as clothes, rent or food. 
As a matter of fact, few seem to make such reviews 
when the accounts are kept in this way, finding it a 
seemingly endless task to assort the different items 
after they have become so thoroughly confused as 
they do in the journal account. In this way the great- 
est benefit of an account is lost. Their highest value 
is in one's being able to bring each set of expenses 
together, so that comparison of different divisions may 
be made, and a proper proportion maintained. It is 
far better to transfer the details of an account to a 
second book, called a ledger, which may for conven- 
ience be divided into sections, each devoted to its par- 
ticular class of items. 

The number of credit accounts should be limited to 
as few as possible, usually to grocer, butcher and doc- 
tor. Frequent settlement of such accounts should 
be made. The family physician has too frequent occa- 
sion to comment upon the unbusiness-like way that 
family bills are allowed to accumulate from year to 
year without attention. If a physician is tardy on his 



448 



Ledger 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 49 

side and does not present bills promptly he is usually 
agreeably surprised to have it called for, as it should be. 

The most complete and concise way of recording the combination 
facts to be preserved is to be found in the combination J^"""^ 
of journal and ledger, such as is illustrated in Table 
III. This will prove in the end to be one of the most 
convenient, suggestive and helpful arrangements yet 
devised. Opposite pages of an account book may be 
used, the left-hand page for the journal record, the 
right-hand for the ledger. The ledger items are 
classified under a few typical heads and the amounts 
expended for each are entered apart from the whole. 
This tenders it very easy at any time to consult any 
one division, where all the record is clearly before one. 
The divisions used correspond to those suggested in 
the discussion of Division of Household Expenditures, 
page 21. These are optional both in character and 
number, but will in the main prove to be excellent 
general heads. Others may suggest themselves as 
desirable for an individual familv. Multiolication of 
details must be avoided as far as possible, to avoid 
confusion. Particulars as to prices paid may well be 
left to the pass books or bills of butcher or grocer, or 
in a separate memorandum book. 



449 



50 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

TABLE III 



ts and 
littire. 


Receipts. 


Expenses. 


Sum. 


c 

>> 

1 


) 

o 
o 


■J-. 

0; 


.^* Operating 
g Expenses. 


bii 

S 

o 

6 

$6.00 


^ 
2 


Date o 
Receip 
Expenc 


Sources 


Sums. 


u 

a; 


1995. 
Jan. 1 

" 2 


Cash in 
hand . 


$90.00 


Flour 

Dress Ma- 
terial. . . . 

Meat 

Coal and 
Oil. 


$4.75 

6.00 
1 25 

7.50 


$19.50 

2 30! 
35. -lo' 


$4.75 
1.25 

1.10 














" 3 




Eggs 

Car Fares . 
Washing.. 

Rent 

Car Fares. 


1.10 

.30 

1.00 

35~00 
.40 

3.25 
1.10 


20 

$35.00 
.40 


1.00 


$6.00 


■ 


" 4 


Salary 


150.00 




" 5 




Groceries.. 

Meat 

Church 
Collect'n. 


4.35 


3.25 

1.10 












- 8 


1.00 
$62.55 


1.00, 
$62.55 


$11.45 








Total. 




1 00 




$240.00 




$35.60 


$8.50 


$1.00 


Ir 


1 earn 


,ing 


on week 


ly 


r mo 


nthl\ 


' accounts with 



Balancing 



butcher, grocer or at dry goods stores various methods 
are employed for keeping a memorandum of the char- 
acter and size of purchases made. If shps are sent 
with the goods when delivered they should be pre- 
served on file, to be compared with the bill when ren- 
dered. Pass books are sometimes used. In that case 
the entries should be made in the nresonrc of the pur- 
chaser, to avoid error or deception. 

Household accounts should be balanced at least 
every week. A dail}' verifying with cash on hand is 



450 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS $1 

easiest and saves time in the end. These daily bal- 
ances may be indicated in pencil as the aim is to prove 
the account to be correct, thus showing that no item 
has been omitted. Every month's accounts should 
be balanced on the last day of the month and a new 
page opened for a new account for the next month. 
The first iteni un the new page should read as in 
Table II, ''By balance brought forward " 

One should set a time for the final balancing of Yearly 
accounts and opening a fresh record. This is usually 
done at the close of the calendar year, although 
another time might be more convenient, as the holiday 
season brings other extras demanding time. 

The facts to be preserved on a balance sheet are Balance 
available after this summary of the year's expenses 
is made. The purpose of a balance sheet is to preserve 
from year to year a statement of the final condition at 
the end of each year for helpful comparison. It may be 
that the income has not been sufficient to meet the de- 
mands upon it, when a deficit with appear. Or the in- 
come may be just enough to cover expenses, or there 
may be a balance of the credit side. A properly man- 
aged household will show a steadily increasing gain of 
this nature, provided no exceptional and unexpected 
bills arise such as result from long illness and the like. 

An example of a properly managed entry and a 
satisfactory showing is given in Table IV. 



Household Account Book, with division of income, 64 page, cloth bound, 30 cents, from 
the School. 



451 



52 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

TABLE IV 



Income for year 1902 

Expense for year 


Cr. 

*2.500 

ee.-'soo 


Dr. 

^2,350 
350 

*3,500 


Balance in hand. 





Card Index ^^^^ liouseholcl accouiits may be kept by means of 
System [\^^. Q^^iX index system, which is perhaps the best meth- 
od of kee])in£^- any and all sorts of records, such as 
addresses, invoices and miscellaneous memoranda. 




CARD INDEX BOXES. 

A small linen or pasteboard box containing a set 
of alphabetical guide cards and some two hundred 
ruled cards in sizes 5x3 or 6x4 inches may be pur- 
chased for from fifty cents to a dollar. These cards are 
ruled horizontally and perpendicularly as in a cash 
book, or come without the perpendicular rulings. 
Various systems may be used. The most concise and 



452 



HO USEH OLD A CCO UN TS 



53 



simple is invariably the best, and it may be so done 
as to make further entering in a book superfluous. 

One plan now being used is as follows : Under the 
letter C in the alphabetical index are three cards for 



Typical 
Method 



JAn. 


CAsw Received 




1 


Cash o/? f?a/?a 


37.64 


6 


salarv <^^^^^ 


eo.ao 


16 


From J^Mf^.oo^^a/eofdooHS^" 


14.00 


23 


" Mat/a^/r?e A/oyJrt/de 


7.50 


F£B. 




t53J4 


G 


Salary 


SOMO 


20 


Extra work tor Sterlfr?(^ 


10.00 
243S4 

















CARD CASH ACCOUNT. 



cash, (i) an account of cash received, (2) an account 
of cash disbursed and (3) the cash balance. It may 
take a card for each month for Cash Received or not, 
depending upon the items. In the case cited the num- 
ber of cards used during the year for Cash Received 
was six, two months on each. 

Cash disbursed takes at least one card a month, 
possibly more if there are many classified accounts. 
The items on this card are the totals of items on single 
cards devoted to daily or less frequent purchases. That 
is, under the letter R, as indicated by the index at the 



Cash Paid 
Card 



453 



54 



HO USEHOL D MA NA GEMENT 



right on the Cash Disbursed card, ilkistrated, is found 
the card ''Rents'' with record of rental payments, when, 
to whom, and how paid, if by check or cash. Market- 
ing inckides both the grocer's and butcher's accounts, 
hence the index letters G and B. These arc itemized 



\905 



3/ 



n 



i> 



CA5\j DiSBURSEp. 



Mef7t 



u^7</er R, 



Gas 



It 



G, 



M///C. 



M^ 



3er^/ce^Uf^."i:' n Lfc 



suppi/es 



s. 



Car fare 



C. 



Persarra/ 



P. 



/r7c/^errea/5 



MarUetwgr 



a^aih 



IGSO 



U70 



2.80 



6.00 



2J4 



3,3S 



8jm 



i,?5 



22.^Z 



64,3S 



CASH PAID CARD. 



Bank 

Account 

Card 



on the cards "Groceries" and "Butcher." If the ac- 
counts are heavy it would be better to devote three 
cards to these items divided into groceries, meats, and 
vegetables. 

The illustrations will probably make the divisions 
clear, but these divisions are not arbitrary, the person 
keeping the household accounts can adapt her own 
system. 

Tf the housekeeper has a bank account a card should 
be devoted to this to check up with bank book and 



454 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 



55 



checks cashed and used for casli. This card should be 
as follows : 



1905 

JAM. 


Bank /Account 




J 


Or? hand 


582J6 




Deposited m fanuary 


80,00 






662./fc 


Feb, 


Drew c/^ecks asipetdpaA 


33^2 


1 


O/? ^ancf . 


e28S4 

































BANK ACCOUNT CARD. 

With this card system a weekly balance may be kept 
instead of the monthly balance as illustrated. The ac- 
counts are so arranged that items may be found or 
traced with c^sc. For instance if in comparing the 
January expenditures on the Cash Balance card, it is 
found that it is much more than for February, it is 
desirable to know zcJiy. We take the two cards of 
Cash Disbursed, the one for January and the one for 
February and compare the items. There it mav be 
found that the gas bill in January was more than in 
February, that more car fare was used, and evidently 
some extra supplies purchased. By turning to the 
card devoted to Supplies, these may be noted and the 
extra amount used at once found. 



Balance 
Card 



455 



5^> 



/ / ( )USEH OLD MA XA GUM UN T 



Advantag'es 



Filed for 
Reference 



The entire account, daily, weekly and yeari\, is in 
compact form and if mistakes occnr it is a more simple 
matter to destroy and make a new card than to fix a 
Look. Like any system of keepin^i;- accounts to be 
accurate and lielpful (liis one demands promptness and 
accuracy in puttiuL; down items. 

In order to he c^f use from year to year in comparini^- 
the increase or lesseniui^ of expenses the accounts 
must he hied away for reference. A set of cards takes 
up not more than six inches in lenqth, four in height 



1905 
JAh. 


Cash B>ALyANCE: (mouthly) 




1 


On hand 


5/. 64 


TAN. 


/deceived 


10 1.50 


II 




IJS.l^ 


IP 


spetft 


e>4.3e 


FEBX 


On hand 


88.7S 


•1 


Rece/i/eof 


90.00 


ff 




1 78.78 


It 


Spent 


S3AS 


MAf<,i 


On hand 


12S.3e 









IWSH 15ALANCE CAKD. 

and less than two inclies space in thickness. The 
entire set can he put in a desk drawer or pigeon hole 
ready for easy reference, (^r if preferred a small 
tin or wooden hox designed for such purpose and 
made the exact size, may be purchased iov the filing 
awa\' of the year's accotmts. 



456 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 



57 



Unless desired for some special purpose it is not 
necessary to save the entire itemized account for the 
year, for the weekly or monthly grocery, butcher's, 
gas, milk and other accounts may be brought together 
each on a single card and kept with the cards devoted 
to the cash and bank accounts for future reference. 



\905 



10 



// 



13 



lb 



17 



ie 



GffOCrff/f/^CCt.Vl^tTHKQLBE.') 



3 DOZ. eggs ^32Sf(>S^ITj 5 



1 Bottle van)Uaj5 6 lemonsjs 



4- Lbs. Coffee 



1 Box t?omtno 3u(7ar 



A Lbs, /putter J2 



to ids . granytateci sugar 



3 " 



12 OfqjK^es 



torcf ,30 I tu.potatOiT t7o 



Pafcf bjr c/jeck.No. ^^i 



1.U 



30 



]A0 



.50 



128 



.GO 



35 



6iP^ 



GROCERY ACCOUNT CARD. 

The chief disadvantage of the card system outlined, 
in comparison with the book system, is that the cash 
balance on hand is not so easily ascertained. 

In any system, it is necessary to compare frequently 
the amount of cash actually in the purse (or purse and 
bank combined) with the balance as shown by the 
accounts. If this is not done there is usually an unac- 
counted for shortage which must be charged to "sun- 
dries," "miscellaneous," and the like — a most unsatis- 
factory procedure. 



Necessity 

of 

Balancing 



457 



58 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Classifica- 
tion 



Alcott Stockwell, in discussing "The Keeping of 
Household Accounts" in the April, May and June 
(1904) numbers of The Home Science ^Magazine, 
gives three tables of classification which may be help- 
ful in suggesting headings for divisions of expendi- 
ture in the accounts. These are as follows : 



TABLE I 



Classification of Houscliold Expenses. 



Housekeeping 

a. Provisions 

b. Ice 

c. Fuel 

d. Rent 

e. Dometic Service 

f. Miscellaneous 
House-furnishing 

a. General (including all fur- 
niture 



b. Kitchen and Dining-room 
Library Siipplies 

a. Books and Periodicals 

b. Stationery and postage 
Miscellaneous 

a. Sundries (expressage. flow- 
er for house, thread, etc.) 

b. Other (fire insurance, mov 
ing. telephone service, etc.) 

Gifts 



TABLE II 



Classification of Personal Expenses {in faniily). 



Clothing 

a. New clothing. Foot wear, 
and Furnishings 

b. Repairs to clothing and 
Foot wear 

Transportation (street car , rail- 
road, hack fares, etc.) 
Personal Services 

a. Toilet 

b. Medical 

c. Dental 
Recreation 

a. Outings (includiaig bicycle, 
pony, canoe, camera and "sup- 
plies, etc.) 



b. Entertainment (may in- 
clude anything as medium of 
diversion. ;is amateur pho- 
tography, musical instrti- 
:nents, 

Education 

a. Books, Stationery and Sup- 
plies 

b. Tuition and Lectures. 
Miscellaneous 

a. Sundries (soda water, con- 
fectionery, cigars, etc.) 

b. Other (any large expense 
not included) 



458 



HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 



TABLE III 



59 



Classiiication of Personal Expenses {single individual) 



1. Clothiug 

a. New Clothiug. Foot wear, 
and Furnishiugs 

b. Repairs to clothing and 
Foot wear 

I. Board and Lodging 
3. Transportation 
1. Personal Services 

a. Toilet (shampoo, manicure, 
chiropodist, etc.) 

b. Medical 

c. Dental 

5. Library Supplies 

a. Books and Periodicals 

b. Stationery and Postage 
3. Recreations 

a. Outings 



9. 
10. 



11. 



b. Entertainments 
Education 

a. Books, Stationery and 
Supplies 

b. Tuition and Lectures 
Miscellaneous 

a. Sundries 

b. Others 



Total Expenses 

Gifts 

Investments 

a. Bank 

b. Other 

On hand at end of month 



In following these headings it would be well for 
Table I to include a division for investments, unless 
a separate small account book is left for these with 
such heading as: 



a. Savings Banks 

b. Life Insurance 



c. Real Estate 

d. Loans 



Charities and Church may be classed under gifts or 
investments, preferably the latter, as they indicate 
within proper limits the most commendable form of 
investment. 



Division 

for 

Investments 



459 



Advantages 



Pass 
Book 



Deposit 
Ticket 



THE BANK ACCOXJNT 

Comparatively few women appreciate the advantage 
and convenience of having a bank account. There is 
a mistaken idea current that banks are solely for those 
who have a balance to invest. This is true only of 
savings banks ; with this exception, the housewife 
may select the most convenient bank of whose financial 
soundness she is assured and open her account. In 
this way the bank becomes merely a temporary safe 
deposit vault, and checks, the easiest and safest way 
of making all except small cash payments. 

Having become identified, with her account accepted, 
the depositor is presented with what is called a pass 
book. This she keeps and presents with each amount 
of money to be deposited. The receiving teller makes 
a record of each deposit on the left-hand page of this 
book, and when the book is balanced from time to 
time a statement is inserted, on the right-hand page, 
of the amount drawn out and the balance remaining. 

In depositing, the housewife or her messenger fills 
out what is known as a deposit ticket, which is always 
to be found provided at the bank. If it is necessary 
or more convenient at any time to send the deposit by 
a messenger he should always fill out this blank in 
the name of the depositor, since it is not necessarily 
her signature, but merely a record of her deposit. If 
there be checks to be indorsed before depositing, that 
is a different matter. Those must be Indorsed before 
delivering them to the messenger, and should be made 
payable to the bank ; they are then payable only to the 

60 



460 



THE BANK ACCOUNT 



6i 



DEPOSITED IX THE 




.\forrixyilff.)/ . •W^^ /Q / fOS 

gJiiJF^t:^>S£ "MST EACH CH£CK SEPARATEIx" 



bank. The deposit ticket is a printed form indicating 
deposits in specie, bills and checks. Sometimes the 
ticket reads for gold and 
silver, instead of specie, 
as is seen in the following 
form, illustrating a de- 
posit ticket properly filled 
out for presenting to the 
receiving teller. This is 
handed in with pass book 
and deposit at the window 
marked "Receiving Tell- 
er/' where the deposit is 
counted and the amount 
compared with the de- 
positor's figures, checks 
examined to ascertain 
whether they have been 
properly filled out and in- 
dorsed and, last of all, the 
amount of the deposit is 
entered in the pass book, 
which is returned to the 
one presenting it. 

Checks, drafts, money orders or express money 
orders can always be sent by mail for deposit with 
safety if properly indorsed. 



BiUs . 


DoNars 


Cenrs 


CoU . ^ . 






i>ilvcr ...... 




Ya 


Checks . .- 






^HUcJ^^s:;^(!(t,'^<a. 


/J- 


ff-(f 


(^ajU/- P/aJ: i^/au4^ 


JLiT 


i^9 


7 






















































Totals 


6 


^d 



Deposit Ticket Properly 
Filled Out. 



Depositing 
by Mail 



461 



62 



llOUSlillOlJ) MANAi;iiMli\''r 



Checks 



Indorsement 



Every depositor is presented with a check book. 
This is a book of blank checks, arranged either several 
on a page, attached by a perforated line to a side, 
which is called a stub, or, as in "pocket" check book, 
with a single check forming the page. In this case 



t rw : 




y^i<^9(c'yl^^Lhh. 



Tort Dearborn ]Nali6iialUaiili 









y 



'5\tx>ovAXt~(j 5 G'-'-'-^'^ 



A CHECK Fir.LRD OUT. 



pages are inserted between each second and third 
check, or between every check, upon which a record 
may be kept, as upon the stubs. A check is a written 
order, dated and numbered, directing the bank in 
which the writer's money is deposited to pay the sum 
stated to the bearer of the check, some person named, 
or 'to the order of the person indicated. 

This check is equivalent to the sum of money named 
upon it anywhere the rightful bearer presents it. It 
may be deposited, presented in payment of bills or 
cashed upon being indorsed. 

To receive the money on a check it is necessary for 
it to be indorsed by the person to whom it is made 
payable. To indorse a check properly it should be 
held by the upper left-hand corner, turned and the 



462 



THE BANK ACCOUNT 



O3 



name written across the back about on-third down 
the length of the check. Other indorsements should 
follow the first, in order. The signature used in 
indorsing a check should always conform exactly to 
that on the face, even if that should by mistake be not 
correct. The simple signature across the back makes 
it possible for anyone to draw^ its value who may come 
into possession of it. For the sake of safety it is 
always well to limit the payment by making it payable 
to the order of anyone to whom it is desired to transfer 
it. It is best to observe this under all circumstances, 
unless one presents the check in person for cashing, or 
must send it to be cashed by someone not known. It 
niakes it impossible for it to be of an\- value to a 
chance finder should it be lost. Thus : 



John L. BenUey 



Simple Indoi'senieiit. 



Fay to the order of 
Henry E. Johnpon 
John L. Bentley 



Safe Indorsement . 



Sometimes a check is made out so that the payee's 
name dififers from that used in the bank. This will 
happen frequently with married women. In such case 
it is usually necessary to sign both names. For 
example, a check made payable to Mrs. Henry Couch 
would be indorsed "Mrs. Henry Couch,'' followed by 
the proper signature, "Harriet B. Couch" underneath, 
since the given name of a depositor is preferred at 
the bank. 



r?ul)le 
Indorsement 



"463 



64 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Vouchers 



Over- 
drawing 



Counter- 
manding 



Stubs 



If for any reason one desires to draw cash on her 
own account it may be done by making out a check, 
using the word ''Cash" or ''Myself" in place of other 
name. 

A check eventually returns to the depositor's own 
bank, is paid, cancelled and returned to her when her 
pass book is balanced, as a voucher or receipt of pay- 
ment. The vouchers are perfect receipts of all pay- 
ments made by check. 

Care must always be exercised not to overdraw in 
checks the amount of one's deposit in the bank. When 
this is done one suffers the humiliation of having the 
bank refuse to honor the check, and the person infring- 
ing is open to the criticism of being unbusiness-like at 
least, and there is usually a small extra charge to pay. 

Should one desire to countermand the order of pay- 
ment on a check after it is issued the payment can 
usually be prevented by notifying the bank in suffi- 
cient time. 

Stubs are the inner margin of a check book, from 
which the checks are detached as used. Upon either 
these or the inserted pages of the pocket check book 
data should be recorded concerning the check which 
is detached. Space is given for noting the data, num- 
ber of the check, amount, the name of the person to 
whom it is made payable and that for which it is given. 
These facts serve as guides in proving the vouchers 
when returned from the bank. Properly kept, the 
stubs indicate at a glance the amount still remaining 
in the bank. 



464 



THE BANK ACCOUNT 



From the preceding facts it will be seen that the valuable 
bank may be made as valuable aid to the housewife in Housewife 
conducting her business as for anyone else who has 
exchanges to effect. By means of checks money may 



OATE,l9oX DEPOSITS. 



JiLul 



-Balamcs Brot. FOnWARO, 



JL 



^,<i^LxA^ 



jE 



f- 



yLATl'Vt^ 



r^ <«^^ 



a-r c 



f 



Total Ocposits. 
DsoucT Chicks Ouawn, Noa. ' J * "* 3 > 



DACANCe FonWARO, 



^6 



131 
31 



97 



00 

ou. 
ou 






f-J 



JiA. 



DATt ^«'^^,c/j:_^.,aor ronJ^-^ C T.<zX^oXt^:^ 



■-■.'- ' PAY TO Cy^t/i^ ^. /t^^JzA^.*^ 

-i4^i90>~ FPU "T' O^e^ 



-JJlL 



E-:^^^/!^^.9or ^vonJt 



/rUA^ 'j- S JujiXtrt^ 



'yA,<rrUA^U-^ 



-ii: 



Ciu-^^yk. 



-^a^ ^'^ ,^oS- r... IaAv^^/ 



ID 



JJ 



00 



Sf 



THE TWO SIDES OF AN INTERLEAVED POCKET CHECK BOOK, 
FOUR CHECKS TO A LEAF. 

be more easily and safely transferred than in any other 
way, since they can be enclosed in letters, if necessary, 
and they avoid the danger of mistakes in ''making 
change," or of loss of money. Since they may be 
made payable to a stated person only, if lost they are 
of little value to the finder. Even if lost after indorse- 



465 



66 



H O USE HOLD MA NA GEM EN T 



Vouchers 

as 

Receipts 



Comparing 

Vouchers 

with Stubs 



ment, the payment may be withheld by notifying the 
bank. 

A check eventually becomes all the receipt necessary 
in paying bills, thus saving any further trouble of 
receipted bills. If checks are used entirely in pay- 
ments, the vouchers constitute a comparatively com- 
plete household account in themselves, but this is 
rarely feasible, as employees find checks an inconven- 
ient form of payment, since they are often not iden- 
tified so that they can get them cashed ; besides, checks 
are quite unknown to them, so that they are slow in 
appreciating them as money equivalent, and their 
hours arc such as not to conform well with banking 
hours. 

The pass book is important as a record of the 
depositor's standing at the bank. That this record 
may be kept accurately, it is necessary to present the 
book with each deposit. The depositor is never at 
liberty to make entries in it herself; that can only be 
done by the receiving teller. The pass book should 
be presented when called for and should be balanced 
as often as once a month if a considerable business is 
done through the bank ; even if the pass book is lost, 
the money may still be drawn out at will. 

Returned vouchers should always be compared care- 
fully with their stubs. Should there be any discrep- 
ancy between the balance as given by the bank and 
that shown in the check book, one should determine 
wdiether this corresponds exactly with the amounts of 
anv checks issued, but not returned. 



466 



THE BANK ACCOUNT 



6? 



Neither check nor pass book need affect in any way 
the household account book, except as they are made 
to be vakiable aids. They form a very convenient 
department of the cash drawer, the cash in hand and 
cash balance in the bank together making- up the sum 
total on hand. 

In some cases if a bank account is properly kept 
it may serve as a fairly complete system of book- 











o. 



rort Jlcarborn National Itank 







Ih^^^^^^tlSLCp^cA. 



Bank 
Account 
Book- 
keeping 



A CHECK WITH STUB ATTACHED. 

keeping in itself. In such a system it is necessary to 
deposit all money received, making careful record on 
the blank sheets of the check book of the date, amount, 
source, etc. Then all bills possible should be paid by 
check. The vouchers are a receipt in themselves. 
These returned checks, with the receipted bills, filed 
in an ordinary 25-cent bill file, give a safeguard 
against paying the same bill twice. All bills should, 
of course, be checked up before being paid. The stubs 
of the check book show for what the money was 
spent — so much for groceries, so much for the butcher, 
for gas, milk, rent, dress goods, etc. When cash is 



467 



68 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Better 
than 
None 



Financially 

Organized 

Family 



necessary, as in paying employees or small incidentals, 
this can be drawn from the bank, or in some cases 
obtained from an obliging tradesman, who will 
exchange cash for checks. Memorandnm should be 
made on the stub as to how the cash drawn is expend- 
ed, or, much better, a petty cash account can be kept in 
a book or on cards. At stated periods a summary may 
be made from the stubs and from the receipted bills 
as to how the money has been expended. 

This system is not, to be recommended for those 
who should look after the pennies carefully. The inci- 
dentals will be found to foot up to a surprising 
amount and it is always better to pay cash for gro- 
ceries, meat, etc. However, such a system is better 
than none, and as it is practically automatic, it can be 
followed throughout the year with very little effort. 
The poorest system, kept accurately from year to year, 
is better than the most perfect system kept only inter- 
mittently. 

in a family which is properly organized financially 
there is a definite idea as to how the income shall be 
divided. A certain proportion is allowed for rent, 
food, saving, etc., as already indicated. Then each 
member of the family should have a personal allow- 
ance, to include definite expenses, of which a personal 
account is kept. As soon as a child is old enough to 
trust with 5 or lo cents of its own he should be given 
such allowance regularly and taught how to spend as 
well as to keep account of expenditure. Only by 
experience can one learn how to spend wisely. 



468 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

PART I 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between an- 
swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before 
answering" the questions. Ansiver fitUy. 



1. What do you understand by the terms production 

and consumption in economics? 

2. Compare their relative importance in Home Eco- 

nomics at the present time. 

3. What is true economy? 

4. What do you consider valid reasons for main- 

taining individual homes ? 

5. (a) What do you understand by the term Stand- 

ard of Life? 

(b) How are you conscious of such a guide in 
your own life? Have you been conscious of 
your standard changing from time to time? 

6. What vakie do you see in a Division of Income 

along some such lines as are indicated in the 
text? 

7. Comment upon the examples of both Typical and 

Ideal Budgets in the light of your own expe- 
rience. 



469 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

8. What do you consider a desirable division of a 

salary of $1,500 a year, the family, occupation 
and location to be chosen as you please? Indi- 
cate clearly and fully both conditions and divi- 
sions. 

9. Estimate as nearly as possible the division of the 

income in your own household and criticise. 

10. Why are household accounts essential ? 

11. How many housekeepers of your acquaintance 

keep careful household accounts? Do you dis- 
cover any indications of greater success be- 
cause of it when compared with those who do 
not? 

12. What system of account keeping do you find most 

usable? Give details. 

13. Explain "Balancing an Account." 

14. What is meant by "Indorsing a check?" Illus- 

trate and explain value. 

15. (a) What arc stubs? How valuable? (b) 

What are vouchers? 

16. In what lines of expenditure does there seem to 

be especial lack of thrift at the present time? 
Suggest causes and corrections. 

17. What do you consider the chief cause of the in- 

creased distaste for housekeeping among 
women and of the tendency to give up indi- 
vidual homes in favor of apartments? How 
do you regard the change? 



470 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

1 8. To what extent have any subjects which you 

studied during your school life been directly 
and practically helpful to you in your home- 
making- experience ? 

19. Is there any additional training or subject wdiich 

it seems to you might be profitably added to 
the curricula of our schools or colleges for 
young women? 

20. Have you gained any new or helpful suggestions 

for the more successful management of your 
home as a result of this study? If so, what? 

21. What additional suggestions can you make on 

any of the topics taken up in this paper as a 
result of your experience or study? 

22. Ask two or more questions on the subjects con- 

sidered in this lesson. 

Note. After completing; the test sign your full name. 



471 



M Y 



Y M P H O N Y 

O live content with small 
means ^ to seek elegance 
rather than luxury, and 
refinement rather than fash- 
ion ^ to be worthy not 
respedable ^ to be wealthy, 
not rich ^ to study hard, 
think quietly, talk gently, 
ad frankly ^ to li^en to the 
^ars and birds, babes and 
sages, with open heart ^ to 
bear all cheerfully ^ to do 
all bravely, await occasions, 
hurry never ^ in a word, 
to let the spiritual unbidden 
and unconscious, grow up 
through the common fl this 
is to be my symphony. 

William Ellery Channing 



472 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

PART i;i 

ORaANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR 

Few things in life are more patlietic than a house- order 
hold in whieh no organization exists, no systematic 
direction of activities, no appreciation of Heaven's first 
law, order. The haphazard, aimless living in such 
homes leaves an unmistakable stamp upon the inmates. 
Without knowing it, the housewife in such a home 
suffers infinitely more friction, loss of time, strength 
and money than it would cost her to keep her house- 
keeping better in hand. 

To have sufficient system and organization so that 
one knows (i) what is to be done, (2) who is to who 

^ ^ ^^ When 

do it, and (3) when is it to be done, is to have the 
chief requisites for the successful working out of 
ideals, coupled with ease and comfort of mind. Apply- 
ing this knowledge each day, one may utilize whatever 
time is at her disposal for other enjoyments, conscious 
that she is not thereby neglecting what should ever 
constitute her first duty — the care of her home and 
family. Tt makes little difference whether it be the 
mother of several boys with limited means at her 
command or the woman who can afTord to hire sev- 
eral helpers ; there is keen pleasure and satisfaction for 

71 



473 



72 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Requisites 



Brain Power 



Knowledge 



Health 



all in work so carefully divided that each has the 
gratification of knowing the importance of his portion 
and feels a commendable pride in his own contribution 
toward the whole. This gratification may be made 
as real for the helpers as for the one for whom the 
work is performed. The joy of definite duties care- 
fully related to the whole, in contrast with the lifeless 
routine of ill-defined, meaningless details, appeals to 
the one as truly as to the other. 

Each thoughtful housekeeper finds her own best 
methods of accomplishing this organization. Some 
general suggestions as to necessary equipments may 
be an aid. Certain things are absolutely essential for 
success, such as the following: 

Brain Pozver with Mental Alertness and Activity. 
IMethod is impossible to one unwilling to contribute 
these. 

A Knoidcdgc as to how to perform the details of 
housework in a superior manner. Unless one under- 
stands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain 
dish, or the length of -time it ought to require to clean 
a room properly, it is quite impossible to direct it so 
that the requisite amount of time and strength shall 
be expended upon it, and no more. 

Health plays no small part. Much failure has poor 
physical conditions at the foundation. No truer 
criticism has been made of American women in gen- 
eral than that of a leader in the study of home prob- 
lems, when she af^rms that too many are content to be 



474 



ORGANIZATION 



73 



"just able to be about." Home is the plaee where 
suffering resulting- from this low standard is certain 
to be most keenly felt. Without excellent physical 
vitality, the cares of a house must, perforce, seem 
mountain-high. The exuberance of spirits of one full 
of life and energy is transmitted like an electric cur- 
rent to all who come in contact with it, and inspiration, 
each for his task, is the inevitable result. Yery unfor- 
tunately, the reverse is equally true. Failure to 
possess the cheerfulness and optimism born of per- 
fect health creates conditions well suited to spread a 
contagion of a very depressing nature. Inability on 
the part of a leader to do his share is soon followed 
by a lessening of interest on the part of the helpers. 
A dropping off of punctual and hearty performance 
of duties results. 

Self-control is another necessity. Ability to think 
coolly and calmly, even under pressure, and to plan 
carefully and intelligently at all times, goes a long 
way in directing others. This characteristic is too 
often thought to be entirely a matter of temperament, 
beyond individual control. It is a great mistake. In- 
dividuals do differ in a marked degree, it is true, in 
the natural possession of it ; nevertheless with good 
normal conditions of health, especially of "nerves," 
that bane of w^oman's existence, this virtue is as possi- 
ble of attainment as any other and well worth a strug- 
gle to secure. 

A large Sympathy, which appreciates the difficulties 



Self-Control 



Sympathy 



475 



74 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Forethoucht 



Routine 



Written 
Notes 



encountered in doing the work, proves a priceless aid 
to the successful superintendent. 

Forethought is an important requisite. One must 
have in mind a broad survey of the work to be ac- 
complished. The outline of at least a week at a time 
should be clearly defined to oneself, each day being 
assigned its special work in addition to a regular rou- 
tine preserved from week to week. In this scheme 
all work such as washing, ironing, sweeping, cleaning 
and the like w^ill find a place, if these are all done in 
the home. The routine should not be infringed upon, 
unless extraordinary emergencies arise . A system 
broken is hard to restore, and something is sure to be 
crowded out, if postponed. Each day's work should 
l)e so planned that the menu w^ill be given to the cook, 
It one is employed, at least the day before, and market- 
ing will be attended to, so as to secure early and 
prompt delivery next morning. A careful mental, or 
better, zvrittcii note should be made of all details liable 
to escape notice at the proper time. This avoids a con- 
fusion in the morning of being needed in several places 
at once, while the machinery wall not be at a stand- 
still, waiting to be set in motion again. It avoids 
waste of time at a very valuable part of the day. The 
early hours count for much in starting the work so 
that tiring haste and over-pressure may be prevented 
later. If helpers know, when they arise, what the 
day's work is to include, they can plan to far greater 
advantage, saving time and strength. Written orders 
are a great help here. 



476 



ORGANIZATION 



75 



Adaptability of means to ends is a thing that the 
would-be organizer may well study in successful busi- 
ness men. A business man's office is so arranged that 
it is to the highest degree labor and time-saving. It is 
compact, orderly, simple, with nothing unnecessary 
filling space. Every thing is at hand and adapted to 
make his work swift and easy. The successful work- 
man's tools are good in quality, in perfect order, and 
so arranged that every motion counts. He knows that 
it is economy to have them so. How many of our 
kitchens would stand the test satisfactorily in these 
particulars? Most kitchens, pantries and laundries 
are so arranged that there is a prodigal waste of time 
and strength in passing from one thmg to another. 
One should see to it that the cooking table is not on 
the side of the kitchen opposite the pantry of supplies 
or cooking utensils, and both as far as possible from 
the stove. A little trouble and perhaps no expense 
will often better conditions. 

It would seem far more ideal a condition than has 
yet been reached were it possible to give certain fixed 
standards for the division of the work of a house so 
that helpers going from one to another would find 
practically the same duties expected of them. To at- 
tempt such outline, would be too hazardous to under- 
take. Were housewives who employ, asked to define 
the duties of "second girl," "nursery maid," or even 
of laundress or cook, hardly two would be found to 
agree, so individual has been the assignment according 
to the particular needs of each household. One ex- 



Adaptability 



Division 
of Labor 



477 



1(^ 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Diversity of 
Requirement 



Study 
the Only 
Solution 



The Right 

to Servants 



pects assistance in one line of work, another in another. 
In one house the housewife rarely appears, gives no 
assistance and maintains the most formal relations 
with those employed. In another she prefers to direct 
minutely and to assist in the performance of portions 
of the work, attempting at the same time to make her 
helpers feel a home-like enjoyment of what she is 
able to provide them. Such diversity renders it im- 
possible to arrive at any general plan or division for 
each helper which shall be adapted to meet the needs 
of all who employ. 

Even in homes where several are employed some- 
thing of the same irregularity is found, A ''second 
girl" at one place is expected to look after the door- 
bell, wait on table and do nursery work. Perhaps 
with her first change of place she is asked to assist the 
cook by preparing vegetables and does laundry work. 

The best guide at present is a patient, thoughtful 
study of the problems of one's own house until as 
equitable and consistent division is attained as can be 
made, meanwhile praying for speedy release from a 
condition so unsystematic and chaotic as that of the 
present time, and resolutely setting one's face toward 
the ultimate solution of some, at least, of the diffi- 
culties through better adaptation of household manage- 
ment to the demands of the age. 

A woman has no right to a servant until she knows 
the value of time and strength in relation to the work 
to be done. She cannot understand her servant's prob- 
lems until she understands a servant's duties. 



478 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 

Even the most fortunate housekeeper recognizes in 
the present situation of domestic service a state of 
affairs sadly chaotic, perplexing and deplorable. 
Merely to cry out against it is futile and would be but 
adding to an already long list of complaints. The 
following pages are intended rather as an Indicator of 
some indisputable facts, to be recognized and dealt with 
by would-be successful employers. 

Domestic service in the United States has passed 
through great changes in the last fifty years. Condi- 
tions, in some respects, were never like those in any 
other country. Until within a few years in New Eng- 
land and the Northwest whatever assistance was 
needed in performing the work of the household beyond 
that rendered by the members of the family was 
secured by empfoying a neighbor's wife or daughter, 
who shared in all particulars the interests and privi- 
leges of the family in which she was employed. She 
was recognized in every way as an equal, sitting at the 
family table, sharing the common sitting room, often 
marrying into the family. While this continues to be 
true to a slight extent in rural districts to-day, there 
has been, generally speaking, an entire change, the 
present being a period of transition and reconstruction. 
The two factors which have had the greatest influence 
upon the domestic situation are immigration and the 
changes in the industrial system. 

77 



Chaotic 
Conditions 



Changes 



479 



78 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Influence of 
Immigration 



Rural 
Supply- 



Industrial 
Changes 



The influence of immigration upon domestic service 
has been more or less similar to its influence upon 
occupations for men. As the unskilled labor of the 
ignorant immigrant has entered into competition with 
the labor of the more skilled and Intelligent native 
workers the native employes have progressed, pushing 
up and out into lines of work which have been deemed 
higher, more lucrative, pleasanter. This has happened 
in domestic service until very few native Americans 
can be secured for housework at the present time. 

Rural districts have suffered a surprising falling off 
in supply due to this change, as the immigrants tend 
to congregate in the large cities, especially those who 
come to us from the countries of the principal supply of 
domestics — Ireland, Germany, Sweden, Canada and 
Newfoundland — and the country girl has learned to 
seek the city also. 

Manufacturing industries have a large influence in 
determining the number of women engaged in domestic 
service in any city or community, as they seem to prove 
more attractive than housework at the present time. 
Whenever there is competition with other kinds of 
employment housework is inevitably the lesser attrac- 
tion. It is done. If at all, only when there is no other 
alternative ; a last resort rather than a choice. It Is 
not surprising, in the light of these facts, that the kind 
of service rendered by those who are engaged in It is 
not as satisfactory as it should be and that the stand- 
ards in the service are very low, with little apparent 



480 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 



79 



spirit of emulation or progress. Let us consider the 
leading elements in the problem from the point of view 
of both employer and employee, seeking to ascertain 
the real and alleged causes of this marked preference 
on the part of employees, and if there are any remedies 
which may be applied to the immediate relief of the 
situation. 

If we turn to consider, first, the advantages of 
domestic service over other forms of labor open to 
women of the class thus employed, there are several 
decidedly advantageous conditions peculiar to the 
work. The conditions for preserving good health are 
superior to those in almost any other occupation. The 
work is normal, with greater variety, better provision 
of light and pure air and more consideration in case 
of temporary illness. Steady employment is afforded 
in work for the most part congenial to those who have 
any understanding of it. In spite of much said to the 
contrary concerning irregularity of hours, there is less 
rigid confinement than in most occupations. 

It affords more home life than other kinds of work, 
although this is in the home of the employer and is not 
considered as home life by the employee. The degree 
in which tfie employee is allowed or made to feel this 
differs greatly, as all know, with employers and, to 
a certain extent, the number of employees. That 
there is far less difficulty where there are many em- 
ployees is shown in the fact that the majority of state 
institutions have no difficulty in obtaining help of all 



Advantagea 
of Domesti( 
Service 



Home 
Life 



481 



8o 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Disadvan- 
tages 



Loneliness 



kinds. Even insane asylums, where the work is very 
hard, can actually make a choice of applicants for 
housework instead of having to seek for them. Even 
under the worst circumstances a certain sense of pro- 
tection and comfort is offered in connection with the 
work, and at its best the comforts and positive luxuries 
which surround the maids far exceeds those they could 
have in their own homes. 

In spite of these important advantages, the work is 
most universally unpopular. All are familiar with the 
reasons offered for this. Irregularity of hours is a 
point frequently urged. It is true that the hours of 
labor are so loosely defined in most households that 
employees have little sense of having completed the 
work of the day. This is true to some extent in well- 
regulated households on account of the nature of the 
work. Lack of system and care in this respect too 
often unduly increases the irregularity and makes what 
might be a reasonable amount of work unreasonably 
heavy. 

It is also true that the employee, although nominally 
in the family, is in no sense a part of it. This is a 
position infinitely lonelier than to be outside it alto- 
gether. Very few employes feel free to' receive or 
entertain personal friends in a manner natural or 
pleasant to them, nor are they expected to do so. 
Attempts to secure personal improvement or pleasure 
are perhaps ridiculed. This is probably not inten- 
tional on the part of the employer, but seems to be the 



482 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 



8i 



result of failure to appreciate the needs of the 
employees or to provide suitably for meeting them. 

Opportunities for promotion and advancement, 
which play a very important part in stimulating to 
effort in other employments, are almost wholly lacking 
in the present methods of conducting domestic service. 
The most that can be hoped for through a change is 
an easier place, a slight increase in wages, a pleasanter 
employer or some trival gain. The work is so ungraded 
that the unskilled, inefficient worker receives practically 
the same wages as the skilled and capable. 

Disparity in wages is sometimes offered as a reason 
for the choice of other w-ork, but this is readily proved 
to be invalid. A comparison w^ith the pay in any 
other form of employment would be favorable for the 
wages of the domestic employee at the present time. 
Wages differ greatly in different sections, vet they 
bear sufficiently close relation to other expenses so 
that general comparisons may be made. Miss Salmon 
in her admirable work on Domestic Service makes the 
comparison between the average wages received by 
the domestic employee and the school teacher. In this 
she clearly shows that, considering the fewer demands 
made upon the domestic emplo}'ee in maintaining her 
position in contrast with those made upon a teacher, 
and ,'dso the many aids and comforts which are not 
easily measured in full money values, such as board, 
lodging, laundry and the like, the average wages of the 
domestic employee is higher by a generous margin. 



Promotion 



Wagee 



483 



82 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Social 
Stigma 



Smployer's 
Standpoint 



The average salary of women teachers is $545 a year ; 
$260 must be deducted for board and lodp-inp- and $25 
for laundry. There is left $260 with which she must 
meet such necessary expenses as clothing, traveling, 
social obligations and working capital, as books, etc. 
If one considers in addition, as is certainly legitimate, 
the necessary outlay for training in the one case, in 
contrast with the low requirements in the other, it 
becomes very apparent that one must look elsewhere 
for an explanation of the great popularity of the one 
form of service and the unpopularity of the other. 

There remains a final objection, which is in reality 
first in importance and which has more to do with 
keeping desirable helpers from choosing this kind of 
employment than any other. It is the reason invariably 
given first by those who express their feeling frankly 
and unreservedly. This is the social disadvantage 
experienced by those who engage in such service. This 
stigma is subtle, but very real in its resultant evils. It 
takes its rise in the false attitude of many employers 
toward housework, and the utterly false idea of what 
equality in this free American country really means 
by those whose limitations of ignorance or opportunity 
have led them to take a wrong view of the entire 
matter. 

When we turn to the employer's point of view there 
is much to be said considering- the unsatisfactory situa- 
tion. Taking the present-day emplovee into the home 
is attempting to introduce into the life there one who 
is of different nationality and who has little in common 



484 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 



83 



with the other members of the family from any point 
of view. Inheritance, former environment and experi- 
ences could hardly be more unlike in the majority of 
cases. There can be little expectation of accomplish- 
ing or even approximating perfect assimilation. 

As there is no opportunity, in the majority of house- 
holds, to rise in this employment, the desire for change 
or betterment finds lively expression and diversion 
through new places. . As a result the employer is put 
to her wit's end to cope wdth this tendency, and is 
often exasperated, and rightly, by her neighbor, who 
resorts to illegitimate means of influence by over- 
paying, and who ignores the fact that she is thereby 
only multiplying the difficulties. Much selfishness is 
revealed in the methods employed bv harassed employ- 
ers, who are often placed in so hard a position that it 
becomes a supreme test of character to decide what to 
do to secure and keep the needed help. The majority 
of employees are astonishingly oblivious to real present 
opportunities, so eagerly do they grasp after vague 
advantages through change. As a result, the average 
length of service in one place is less than one and a 
half years in cities, and in towns where the desire 
to go to the cities is strong it is still shorter. 

The ignorance of the average employee of the 
present time is profound and very exasperating, the 
more difficult to cope with because of the assumed 
intelligence in most cases. The perplexities and trials 
of being forced to employ untrained helpers for work 



Irresponsi- 
bility 



Ignorance 



485 



«4 



HOUSEHOLD MAXACliMliMT 



Summary 



Time 
Off 



which requires skilled labor can hardly he exagger- 
ated. That more of this crudeness is to be found in 
this line of work than in any other is indisputable. It 
is accounted for parth' in the present failure to show 
appreciation of good work or to properly reward it. 
This is one of the greatest menaces to satisfactory 
service. 

These, then, are the objections to household service: 
Tt provides no real social life; it takes the worker 
from her own home and places her where, however 
comfortable she may be, she is an alien, often losing 
caste among her friends, hence having no social place; 
it offers no incentive to rise, no spur to ambition, 
except that of personal pride or desire to please, and 
this, if not lacking in the first place, may cease, because 
there is no real competition. 

Also, it should be stated that all places are not com- 
fortable ; a cold, cheerless, illy furnished room cannot 
seem a rest or refuge after a hard day's work. Work 
over a hot stove, however neatly done, certainly does 
seem to demand for the person engaged in it proper 
hot water bathing facilities. 

Fresh air is an essential to haj^py, healthy living. 
(Jne afternoon weekly cannot enable the maid to store 
away sufficient fresh air to keep her through the fol- 
lowing six days. 

Simply from the selfish standpoint, that of getting 
the best work from the machine, reasonable fore- 
thought should be given, not only for the comfort, but 



486 



DOMESTIC SLRl'ICli 85 

for the personal freedom of the employee. This 
means that if the best work is expected from the 
worker an endeavor should be made to keep her in 
the best physical condition for that work. When the 
prescribed work is finished it is normal for anyone to 
desire to get out and away from the place in which 
she has been working. If a maid's sitting room were 
or could be a part of every house there would not be 
the temptation to seek the street or a friend's kitchen 
for rest and recreation. This sitting room is often an 
entire impossibility ; it is frequently considered in that 
light Ijecause it entails a sacrifice of space or some 
expense. There is far too frequently an utter disregard 
of the actual condition of what may be termed the 
rolling stock of this business. It is economy to keep 
the machine well oiled, well repaired and well housed. 
Pleasant surroundings do much to lighten labor 
and make it attractive, whatever kind of work it may 
be. This fact large manufacturers and merchant's 
have recognized and utilized to their great advantage. 
The liousekeeper may learn the same lesson, and a 
maids' sitting room may become the rule rather than 
the exception. 

Reasonable forethought entails a recognition of the 
fact that as there are now few standards of work or 
methods of doing it, so that the new cook or maid, no 
matter how well recommended or even equipped, has 
no idea of how you desire your work done or how you 
wish it .systematized. Proper and sufficient directions 



Pleasant 
Surroundings 



Standards 
of Work 



487 



86 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Written 
Directions 



Daily 
Outlines 



should be given and proper care that they should 
not be presented in a confused manner all at once. 
Perhaps they can be given best in writing, a type- 
written sheet placed in the kitchen or some suitable 
place and used for reference. To this can be attached 
the special direction for the following day each night 
or afternoon, and the chances are this plan will aid 
very materially in the smooth running of the ma- 
chinery of the household. Such a plan need not be in 
too great detail, unless the maid be very untrained. 
Miss Parloa suggests such a daily outline in her 
work on Home Economics, as follows : 

1. Make the fires, air the dining room and hall. 

2. Prepare the breakfast and set the table. 

3. Put the bedrooms to air while the family is at 
breakfast. 

4. Remove the breakfast dishes ; put away the food. 
Sort the dishes and put to soak all dishes and utensils 
that have had food in them which is liable to stick. 

5. Put dining room and sitting room in order, airing 
them well. 

6. Wash dishes, put kitchen and pantries in order. 
Prepare dishes that require slow cooking and put them 
to cook. 

7. Make beds and put sleeping rooms and bathroom 
in order. 

8. Trim lamps. 

9. Dust halls and stairs ; sweep piazzas. 

This plan is for a maid of all work, and naturally 
would be varied in many households, but indicates the 



488 



Personal 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 87 

idea. The more definite the work can be made, the 
better. 

Personal freedom for the maid means about what 
it does for the mistress ; freedom to choose and have freedom 
her own friends, to have them call and visit with her ; 
to receive them without unnecessary and seemingly 
impertinent interruption or surveillance; freedom to 
come and go within reasonable limits without asking 
permission or giving explanation each time. In short, 
it is an application of the Golden Rule, and means 
such treatment as will insure the respect, if not the 
liking, of employee for the employer. This may seem 
revolutionary, actually impossible to many, and prob- 
ably is where there is a succession of unknown, un- 
tried, unreferenced maids passing through the kitchen 
every four to six weeks. This plan, however, has 
been tried with success in many places. 

In a small city in Northern New York, where the a case 
majority of people are in the maelstrom of the domestic 
situation, there is a family that secures help readily 
and whose maids remain with them until a proper rea- 
son, such as marrying, causes a change. The em- 
ployer in this case considers that she employs the maids 
to do the work, not simply to be in the house. When 
the work is finished the maids are at liberty. If two 
are in the house, one is expected to be ready to answer 
the bell ; if one only is employed, there never has been 
trouble or even necessity of making any rule about 
this mooted point. This housekeeper has argued that 



in Point 



489 



HS HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

in general she would j)refcr to answer her own door 
• bell and have the real work cheerfully, faithfully and 
well done, and that to get out of doors undoubtedly 
Avould be better for maid and work than staying in 
would 1)C. This mistress has provided her maids with 
suitable reading matter for their leisure time, and 
shows that she is interested in the outside life of the 
girls without unduly interfering with it. Tn conse- 
(juence she has good service, the maids are well and 
l^appy, and so is she. for friction is almost unknown 
in the running machiner) of that home. Perha])S this 
should be noted, that in general the mistress does not 
have to answer the door bell, and manv little thought- 
ful services are performed for her not nominated in 
the bond. 
Reorganiza- The real qucstiou is not the reason for the dearth 

^^^'^Home •-^ good houschold workers, but what suggestions may 
be made to assist the housewife in this trying situation. 
Tn its ultimate effects the domestic situation of 
to-day will probably bring about a reorganization of 
ihe home. This is to be hoped and desired, if that 
reorganization means raising the work of the home 
to its proper position as a recognized business affair, 
whose director is re([uirec' to have a knowlccg? and 
skill somewhat commensurate with the issues at stake, 
the interests involved. It is absolutely necessary that 
the director of the home should know and be trained 
for her business if she is to demand and obtain skill 
and training in those she directs. The recognition of 
this need is the first great ste|) toward reform. 



490 



DOMLSriC SliKVICli 



89 



The sccfiiid is llie acknowledgment of the fact that 
in general the housekeeping of to-day is run on an 
antiquated plan, one not even fulfilling the needs of 
an earlier generation and entirely inadequate to cope 
with the tendencies of to-day. The plan has to be 
changed. Xo progress will be made if women .spend 
their time in bewailing the present condition only; wc 
must jjut our wits to work to better it. 

These, then, are suggestions: First, that there 
should be more univer.sal efifort made, particularly 
in communities where clubs discuss these things, 
to secure certain just standards of work to be done 
for a certain just wage, 'i he work of each household 
should not vary between unknown limits anrl the 
wages still be the same in each. 

Co-operation in establishing standards of work is 
much needecl. Why should the cook who prepares 
three elaborate meals daily for a family of six adults, 
who often entertain, be paid the same wages as the 
cook next door, who prepares simjjle meals for three 
people who live most quietly and rarely have a guest? 
Workers in factories and stores at least are governerl 
by the same number of hours. Ju.st as the life, num- 
bers and demands of different families vary, .so does 
the work vary. A standard of wage cannot be estab- 
lished without a corresponding standard of work. 

Secondly, that housekeepers should bring themselves 
to a willingness to adopt the hour plan, the worker 
coming in, and work being done and paid for by the 



Sufgeation- 



Establish 
Standard! 



Work by 
the Hour 



491 



Expense 

of the 

Hour 

Plan 



An 

Actual 

Experience 



90 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

hour according to kind or skill involved in accom- 
l)lishing it. 

The immediate objections to this plan are, first, its 
expense, and then the seeming strain upon the house- 
keeper, who must either piece out or piece together 
this patchwork scheme. Then arises the question : 
"Where shall we get the workers?" for in many places 
this is a problem. 

As to expense, in only a few cases has it been com- 
pared, hence there is a lack of sufficient data. In 
general it may be computed in this way : Take first 
into account the wages of the maid or maids, add 
board and what may be called room rent, including 
light, etc., used. One family living in the West has 
carefully kept account of the expenses with and with- 
out a maid and have concluded that in general a maid 
of all work costs $5 a week above her^ wages. This is 
higher than Mrs. Abel's estimates, which w^ere based 
on the actual experience of a family of seven. 

The family lived in a small town in New^ York, and 
consisted of five men and boys and two women. These 
estimates are the comparison of two successive sum- 
mers. In both cases the laundry was done outside, 
hence has no place in the comparison. 

First Sum uicr. 

Wages of maid per week $3-00 

Board per week 2.50 

Rent of bedroom 50 

$6.00 



492 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 91 

The exact amount of room rent could be known, as 
the house was too small for the maid and a room was 
rented outside for her. 

Second Siiinjjier. 

(Work done by the hour.) 

Dishwashing, two and a half hours for six days 

(fifteen hours) $i-5o 

Cleaning (15 hours) 1.50 

Dinner service, three hours for six days (eigh- 
teen hours) 1.80 

Sunday dinners at hotel, seven, at 25 cents (less 

estimated cost of food material) 88 

$5.68 

From these and other data it might be determined 
that in general a maid costs her wages ; that is, if paid 
$5.00 a week, the conditions are such that the probable 
cost for her board and lodging is $5.00 also ; if paid 
$3.00, it cost another like amount for her "keep." 

In Chicago so many of the very good apartment Apartments 
houses are constructed without accommodation for 
maids that the hour plan is popular. The general con- 
census of opinion is that the hour plan is less, not 
more, expensive, and has advantages not reckoned in 
dollars and cents. By those who have tried it the 
advantages of the hour system are stated to be that 
the work is in general better and more rapidly done ; 
there is not such waste of material, and that the free- 
dom from the responsibility and presence of an actual 



493 



92 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Where to 

Obtain 

Workers 



Natural 
Progress 



alien in the house, especially in an apartment, is incal- 
culable. 

The question of where to get these workers remains 
to be solved. That is a very individual one, belonging 
to the conditions of each city or town. As club women 
take this up, bureaus such as the Plousehold Aids 
Company of Boston will be established, and even now 
from guilds and industrial unions, often from bureaus 
of charity, such workers are easily obtainable. 

One young woman in Brooklyn, after desperate 
times with incompetent help, advertised for a married 
woman with children who could leave her home for a 
certain number of hours a day. She obtained a refined 
woman in reduced circumstances, untrained for any 
definite work, whose experience made her of the great- 
est assistance. She goes to the house for a stated 
number of hours each day to care for the babies, while 
the mother performs her social duties. This mother 
does her own cooking, having the dishwashing done 
by the hour. The expense is lessened, her home is 
charming, she feels she is leaving the children in safe, 
"grammatical," understanding hands, and she has 
leisure for profit and pleasure, for the higher life, 
which she says she never had in the old plan, even 
with a smaller family. 

We must realize that natural, industrial progress 
has taken one by one from the home the occupations 
formerly carried on there, until housekeeping no 
longer means the making of many things, but the 
proper expending of money for things already made. 



494 



DOMESTIC SERVfCE 



93 



We should not resist this tendency, but recognize and 
fit into it. 

It must be remembered that the sanctity of the home 
is not preserved by the industries carried on there. To 
preserve one home at the expense of several others is 
neither economic nor ethical. When clubwomen talk 
about the sanctity of the home they should ask the 
question, ''Whose home ?" 

Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, who is a close student 
and a wise observer of economic conditions as they 
affect the home, says that the solution of present 
troubles must come in part from reducing the kinds of 
work done in the home. This is along the line of 
industrial progress as well as that of the least resist- 
ance in this case. 

The laundry is disappearing from the house, follow- 
ing soap and candle making. True, there are many 
more poor laundries than good ones, but that there 
are good ones, and that these have been run with a 
profit, proves there can and should be more. 

The establishment of laundries is one step, and a 
perfectly possible one. A well-educated Southern 
woman, after taking a course in household science at 
a Northern institution, started a laundry in a Northern 
city. The work was entirely done by hand and a fair 
price charged for it. She supervised the work and 
employed competent people to do it. It paid well in 
every sense for both owner and patrons. When cir- 
cumstances forced her to lay aside the work her 
customers were as homeless people ; they had no other 



Sanctity 
of the . 
Home 



Establishment 
of Laundries 



495 



94 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Good 

Employment 

Agencies 



The 
Future 



place to go. What one woman has done other women 
can do, and it should be emphasized that this woman 
was well born, delicately brought up, educated and a 
Southerner, with the inevitable shrinking from labor 
outside that such a bringing up entails. She says that 
her patrons became her friends, that w'ork she took 
up with shrinking became really delightful, simply 
because it w^as w^ell done. 

Another step is the establishment of more properly 
run employment agencies. Too many cases are known 
of employment agencies that encourage their maids to 
change often, to the end that they may gain additional 
fees. Employment agencies where references are 
required and looked up, where the maid is actually 
investigated and known as well as the housekeeper, 
where honesty is considered not only the best but the 
only policy are not castles in Spain. They can be 
established, supported and run by women and women's 
clubs. 

Whatever solution the future may hold, employers 
are beginning to realize that it is not through greater 
individual indulgences, more equality or higher wages 
that the problems are to be solved. Employees do 
not ask to be admitted to the family circle. Self- 
respecting helpers would not feel comfortable were 
this provision made, nor is it a practical way of 
removing the difficulty. What they desire as a class 
is, rather, the opportunity of independence which other 
forms of employment afiford and w^hich Is missed in 
this — a chance to perform their work and, apart from 



496 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 



95 



that, to live their own Hves in their own way. 

However desirable any opening or advantage, the 
spirit of liberty demands that it be chosen rather than 
forced upon one. What domestic service is really 
claiming for itself is some adjustment whereby definite 
hours shall be secured, and, outside that, free choice of 
amusement, personal improvement, friendships — life. 

This, when secured, will prove one of the most 
reasonable and satisfactory aids to the solution of 
difficulties of both employers and employees. The 
final adjustment to the same basis as all other indus- 
trial and business activities will be a work of time, no 
doubt, but it seems to be the inevitable goal. 

As employers and the world at larg-e erain and keep 
in mind a truer conception of the importance of house- 
hold employment in the economic world there will 
follow better practical results. As long as employers 
express scorn of these duties little can be hoped for in 
the way of ''dignifying labor'' in the home. The 
efficiency of the housework cannot be expected to rise 
above that of the mistress as manager. There is deep 
significance in the words of one who wTote : "To know 
the workman one must have been a workman himself, 
and, above all, remember it." The housekeeper must 
know the household affairs and respect them if she 
w^ould have others do the same. 

There are some experiments being carried on at the 
present time that all ' should follow with interest. 
These go far to prove that the preceding statements 
are not without foundation. Notable among;- these is 



Deflnito 
Hours 



Industrial 
Basis 



Dignity 
of Labor 



497 



Household 



96 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

the attempt which has heen made in Boston to create 

an attractive home center for helpers, from which they 

Aid po each day for a definite number of hours for employ- 
Society ^ . -^ . t • 1 J • ^1 • 

ment in various homes which desire their services. 

The helpers are classified and graded, as already sug- 
gested, according to efficiency, the wages paid corre- 
sponding to the degree of skill attained. There is 
adequate stimulus to advancement, as instruction is 
given at the home center. The home life is natural 
and congenial, every attempt being made to enhance 
the wholesome pleasure to be derived from such a 
place. The rapidly increasing popularity of the experi- 
ment shows that no mistake has been made in the 
diagnosis of the employee's point of view. For the 
employer there is the difficulty of arranging the work 
to fit such a plan so that the desirable work shall be 
secured at a price not exceeding the expense of resi- 
dent help. This is a difficult thing to do, a thing not 
yet accomplished, but which the ingenuity of woman 
will yet solve. Without doubt i<" will mean the simpli- 
fying of life in some homes, but if this is wisely 
arranged it will be a gain rather <^han a loss. 



498 



BUYING SUPPLIES 

Women, as a usual thing, spend such small sums of 
money at a time in their purchases for the house, that 
they are apt to lose sight of the size of the total amount 
expended in a year. Not realizing the value of the ag- 
gregate it follows that they hesitate and study returns 
far more carefully and intelligently in investing one 
hundred dollars in any other way than in placing the 
same amount in household supplies. Those who real- 
ize the importance of economic buying follow cur- 
rent prices and buy when the market offers the best 
inducements. The difference in time expended in ex- 
ercising this care is not as great as is fancied. Watch- 
fulness and interest count chiefly. There are times of 
legitimate annual or clearance sales when real bar- 
gains may be secured. These should be watched for 
and taken advantage of in buying yearly supplies of 
things which may be safely stored. If the articles to 
be purchased are such as suffer from the competition 
of ''style" one is especially enabled, with a slight sac- 
rifice of style to quality, to reap a rich harvest at the 
expense of the foolish of the world who must have 
the very latest fad at whatever cost. The extremes 
of fashion are folly economically, in that they make it 
impossible to realize nearly the value of money ex- 
pended. 

There is only a small range of supplies in which 
there is a marked style. Individual preference controls 

97 



Relative 
Importance 



Legitimate 
Bargains 



Buying in 
Quantity 



499 



98 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Small 
Quantities 



Storage 



in the selection of most, so that when one has de- 
termined upon the most desirable brand, variety, etc., 
there are left but three things which must be weighed 
in deciding the amount to be bought. These are ( i ) 
room for storage, (2) ready money for the purchase, 
and (3) the perishable nature of the article. The 
economy of buying in quantity must, necessarily, de- 
pend to a large extent upon these points. When these 
can be satisfactorily met there is great advantage in 
buying in quantity. Thereby one has the advantage of 
wholesale prices or great reduction over retail prices 
on quantities not too large for a moderate-sized fam- 
ily to dispose of within desirable limits of time. 

The family that finds it necessary to buy its supply 
of coal by the fraction of a ton and flour by the pound, 
suffers great loss through the increased expense, pay- 
ing often very nearly twice as much as the same grade 
would cost in larger quantity, and w^ith no gain since 
these products gain in value rather than lose, by stor- 
age. Buying in small quantities at retail means pay- 
ing a generous profit for grocer or messenger boy's 
wages in delivering the small amounts. Again, one 
suffers from having to look her supplies over fre- 
quently or has the annoyance of finding something 
missing when wanted. 

The changed conditions of modern life from those 
of our grandmothers affect our habits in regard to 
storing supplies. Now that a large number of homes 
are rented, each room counting and swelling the 



500 



Purchaser 



• BUYING SUPPLIES 99 

monthly bill, it has naturally led to economy of space. 
The uncertainty of residence with some has its effect 
also, as the expense of moving is increased by quantity, 
and the danger of injury and breakage all have to be 
reckoned with. One great misfortune which results 
from these considerations is the inclination to turn to 
cheap grades which are more readily disposed of at 
such a time or cause less regret if injured. Thereby 
we are losing some of the refining influences of acquir- 
ing and possessing the best. This applies especially 
to furniture and utensils, which ought to be bought 
as though they were to last a lifetime. 

There is a happy medium between the huge chests Medium 
of linen in former time which held supplies not used 
for years, yellowing with age, and the modern ten- 
dency of hand-to-mouth provision, satisfying only the 
weekly demand. There should be always a small 
emergency store of linen. Additions can be too easily 
made to require that it be very large. In fact, since 
it may be added to, usually, any day, the principal 
gain is realized by being able to buy better at certain 
seasons, as in January, than others, and the same 
reduction in price by buying in quantity may be real- 
ized in this as in groceries. Dish toweling by the roll 
at 13^ cents instead of 15 cents a yard, sheeting by 
the web or piece at a similar reduction, etc., are illus- 
trations of the benefits to be derived through such 
methods of buying. An especial reason for buying 
table linens in January, in addition to any attractive 



501 



Requirements 



loo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

prices which may be found at that time, is that the 
fresh supply of goods is in then and one may so 
secure a better selection. For storing linens a special 
chest or linen closet is very desirable and should be 
included in planning a house, but when not provided, 
an ordinary closet may be used, drawers, a trunk or 
a home-constructed box, any of which answers every 
purpose if well cared for. 
storage For Storing groceries the requirements are a light, 

dry, cool room, as near the kitchen and pantries as 
possible. It should be supplied with lock and key, 
which the housekeeper or a trusted helper controls. 
Large quantities may so be put into it and smaller 
portions given out as needed for use. This is both 
an aid to economy (since the tendency is to use more 
liberally if there is a large amount at hand) and 
prevents such supplies as baking powder, tea, spices, 
etc., from losing in value through standing open. A 
year's supply is usually as large an amount as it is 
well to buy at a time. This is especially true of 
canned goods. These should be bought in the fall 
after the fresh supply is in market. By the dozen, or 
better yet, by the case of two dozen, canned goods 
may be secured at a reduction of from ten to twenty- 
five per cent. The same is true of the pack- 
ages of cereals, although for small families cereals 
cannot be used rapidly enough to buy in large quan- 
tity. It will be found to be well worth while for those 
of limited space to attempt to make space somewhere 
for some storage room. With a large number of 



502 



BUYING SUPPLIES 



lOI 



families that are not cramped for room it should be a 
matter of more consideration to utilize a portion for 
this purpose. 

It is only the very poor who have an excuse for 
being too limited in ready money for such advance 
purchasing. It is but thrifty to see to it that there 
is at least a small capital which may be used for such 
advantage. When once started it is a simple matter, 
since after that the woman of forethought will look 
ahead and plan so that the funds will be at hand as the 
supply-time comes around. Of course there is no 
economy in buying at a reduction a supply which is 
so rapidly perishable in nature as to cause a loss of 
enough to off-set, or more, the gain through getting 
in large amount. This is but a waste of time and 
energy as well as money. Vegetables are much 
cheaper by the bushel or barrel, and fruit, as oranges, 
by the box, but one must have a cold storage room to 
insure the safe keeping of either for any length of 
time. Even then there must be care in looking them 
over frequently to remove any that are decayed. For 
most families, therefore, it proves more satisfactory to 
buy perishable articles as needed. 

A great difficulty confronts the would-be-wise buyer 
to-day in the fact that it is hard to establish standards 
of quahty without some sad experience. When the 
housewife manufactured her own soap she knew be- 
yond a question what constituted an excellent article. 
Through handling different kinds of cloth, in weaving 



Ready- 
Money 



Perishable 
Supplies 



Quality 



503 



102 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



or sewing, standards were created in that direction. 
Ignorance of real value makes the thriving ''bargain 
Remnants counters" possible with their "remnants" cut from the 
webs on the shelves and offered at a price equal or 
even in excess of that for which the same goods may 
be bought by the yard elsewhere in the same store. 
Shrewd, not over-scrupulous merchants are bound to 
take advantage where it is possible, and the ignorant, 
unsuspecting purchaser pays a dear price for his or 
her ignorance, 
utensils In buying utensils the maxim, "The best is the 

cheapest," is an excellent one to bear in mind. One 
who makes a trial of different grades has ample oppor- 
tunity to prove its truth. Cheap goods often increases 
the expense lOo per cent, while at no time does one 
secure anything of the satisfaction in use that is 
secured in the better class goods. Cheapness means, 
perforce, haste or flaw in manufacture. This results, 
naturally, in ill-shaped, defective ware. Durability 
seems to be a thing no longer estimated, so little does 
it enter into account in manufacture or purchase. No- 
where is the difference more marked than in kitchen 
utensils. Spoons with soldered or riveted handles, 
ready to part company with the bowls on the first real 
test of strength or heat, are poor economy. The same 
is true of the enamel ware which crackles and chips 
off with the first accidental heating or ''sticking on" 
of food, after which it is unfit for use. So one might 
enumerate manv illustrations of false cconomv of this 



504 



BUYING SUPPLIES 



103 



nature. It is the part of wisdom to pay a little more 
at the time and thus secure better wearing qualities 
and far greater satisfaction. The cheapest is rarely 
wise. 

On the other hand, a medium-priced article in many 
things has real worth to recommend it to one prac- 
tising close economy. Jn such purchases as 1)ed or 
table linen and toweling, for example, the difference 
between a medium and high-priced grade may repre- 
sent the difference between hand work and machine, 
between embroidered or hemstitched articles and 
plainer. Since this is not a question of durability, a 
purchaser has a legitimate right to weigh the differ- 
ences in the light of her allowance and decide in favor 
of the plainer if it be wiser. It should, however, 
always be a decision based on an intelligent considera- 
tion of values. One should never be at a loss when 
detecting coarse, loosely woven and shoddy fabrics 
or other evidences of cheap work. Other differences 
she may be justified in weighing, never that. 

One may purchase most supplies either in a depart- 
ment store or in one devoted to a single or limited 
line of goods. There is, on the whole, a difference 
to be found both in quality and price of the stock in 
the two places. The grade of goods in the specialty 
store is usually better and the price somewhat higher. 
The department store has gained great popularity 
because of the convenience of purchasing everything 
in one place and because of competition in prices 



Medium 

Priced 

Articles 



Department 
and Specialtj 
Stores 



505 



104 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Classes of 
Supplies 



"Must Haves" 
and "May Haves" 



which seem at sight to favor trading there. The 
careful buyer will frequently find the difference in 
price more than equalized in the quality of the pur- 
chase. This is especially noticeable in kitchen fur- 
nishings. The sharpness of the competition has tend- 
ed to lower prices in the specialty store as far as the 
quality of the wares will allow. 

Supplies may be classed as (i) furnishings or 
utensils which are subjected to wear and consequently 
must be replenished from time to time, as furniture, 
bedding, carpets, kitchen, laundry and dining-room 
furnishings; (2) such supplies as are consumed in 
one way or another and so must be replenished, as 
fuel, food, soap and the like, and (3) such miscel- 
laneous supplies as daily newspapers, magazines, 
plants, flowers, etc. 

In buying these supplies one may divide them into 
essentials or "must haves" and accessories or "may 
haves:' The first division one must secure at once. 
It is well to leave the second list to be remodeled 
after one has lived in a house for a while. 

It is surprising to one who has some experience 
like camp life to find how few the absolute essentials 
really are. Many accessories have come to be looked 
upon as ''must haves" through long use. The evi- 
dence of some utility in everything, together with 
refinement of taste in every selection, are the great 
essentials in giving a home the subtle charm and 
comfort which we covet. Furnishings need not be 
many in number nor elaborate in quality to satisfy 



506 



BUYING SUPPLIES 105 

these requirements. The greater the simplicity the 
more satisfactory, usually. 

The following are lists of kitchen, laundry, dining- i-i^t* 
room and bed-room furnishings, with average prices. 
The amount of equipment required is determined by 
the size of the family and its demands. For two peo- 
ple of simple tastes the kitchen utensils may be quite 
limited and the dining-room furnishings few. The 
same things are required in bed-room fittings as for a 
large family, but not in such numbers. 

KITCHEN UTENSILS 

Range $30.00 and up 

Coal hod! • • • • .75 

Shovel, poker, lifter -50 

Towel rack 25 

Teakettle 1 . 25 up 

3 Stew pans, 1 quart to 8 quarts 75 to 13.50 

Frying pan 60 up 

Double boiler 1 50 • 

Broilers, fish, meat and toaster 90 

Frying basket 20 to .35 

Muffin pan 50 up 

Colander -10 '• 

Coffee pot ^ ^^ " 

Teapot '5 " 

Chopping knife and bowl "5 

Meat chopper 1 .00 up 

Strainers '0 

Bread pans, 2 or more 50 

Bread board 50 

Meat board 50 

Rolling pin 25 to 1.00 

Flour sieve |0 '* .25 

Scoops for flour, sugar, meal, etc 10 ' .50 

Pans or basins, 2 or more ^9 "^ 

Bowls, about five in assorted sizes 75 *| 

Dlshpans |^ *' 

Drainer ]jl 

Dish cloths 25 

Floor and stove brushes 

Broom ^ 

Dustpan 25 

Meat and bread knives ^^^ 

Case knives and forks ^ 

Vegetable knives *0 

Dripping pan * ^ 

Egg beaters 2, Surprise and Dover ^ 



507 



I'X. //( >/',s///( »/ /> 1/ /,v ii.i.]ii\'r 

Kircni'.N ii'n;Nnii,M (»N.i>(iinio.n 
« JriUcrM , , , lift 

Moir.minm'tipN,.,,,,,,., ...,",,. ,M i i i !!!!! iiii i i ! ' y^ 

I lOmnll N(HI(H>(f,«>r . . , , , , 1 , III , , ,, , , , II 10 

nut«n<, uranllo , ,,.,', .|ii 

suovvoi'N . . , nil 1 II.. 1..1 ,11, , yft 

Spoons ,,,,.,,,,, ..1.1111,1,', I "0 lo a (H) 

1!'""'*'.'.'"*^ •;>.....■-,"•• " •'^"1' 

iiiiMti ittiNin foi'NlnU , I ,,.,,,, :io 

l''»iim(>l ,,,,,,, ,,, ,.,,,1 10 

\'oH«'it»l>U»ov fMi(t«ilntf(ttNht>N, ttoi' move ,, M \i|> 

I'oiMio uu\'ihov 1,1 1,.., I, an '^ 

Uin'l>i»K«< pMll ,,, ,1, ,,,,,,,,, ,1 ,, I . ,1 ,,,,,,,,,, , Tft " 

IColrlH'M-Mlor , ,,,,,,, ,, th 0(1 

IC<'t>op(m'|i>'i lo\' lliUM", HlimU', COI'PIiIn, MlllO«>H, coii.llni. 111., 

iMolii'iMi'-i, ritv 
(Mtali'M, Nlool, Initio. 

Vrtou riu- iiIi'iimI;. <mi .ilioxc Iisl iii,i\ he » oiiMtlci cd "imr.l 

h.ivt's " I Iir |MUf,". ol IIk" N.iiHMis llim;;'. \.ii\ w illiiii 
t|iiilc wiilr Iiiiiils. .IS Will lu' sriMi. I lie In Mi',(ki'c|>{M 
sIlouM Ivtiow (MH>ll;'.ll nl (lir iii.iliM i.il:. coniiuisin}; llkMl 
sil.s \o i;ui(K" Iin in llu iliouc i>l m.ilcri.il .niil prii'c. 
rilis slu' c.imiol Know willuMil vomc know lril:;r ol 
tlir .ulioii ol (lie oidiii.iiN .K !>!-■ .iiitl .ilk. ill.', ii.-.rd in 
rookins; .md i liMnin:', opiM.ilions imi lin. iion. pon'c 
l.iin. .i!',.ilr. (•(» To llir IinI jirst jL;i\i'n m.i\ Im* added 
nianv (>tliri llnnj'.s. m.iin ol wliiili wcuild \h' "innsi 
li.ivrs" in soiiu' kihluns 
jfiHtiintUo A I. lit (•'.(nn.ilr loi lillm:'. a kidluii willi niensils 

j;iviMi is hiMii $^i,.0(> lo ^v|i).0(>. nu liidin:; i eh ij'/m .iloi . 
luit no! iiu Indiii;', i.in;;r. ^j^iiu>i>o i;. not [yn) \A\i\c .i 
Mini l«» .ippoiiion lo piopci kih lu'ii lillnij^s il llic r.inj;i' 
l>r iiuhuird, .iiid il 1'. dr-.ind lo luipn willi (Mion|',li 
^ooil ntiMisil;. lo ni.iki' llu- wi>ik imsv. 



.St)H 



liijyiNC ';rjpprrFS 



107 





i'>,v.,u,'dt)'i V';K*HatI< I'"-- 



:>;ill Jiox- 



Meat Otopiittr 




f 







_*i 



Slaw Cuit':f, ki..U^ a4ju«t'4W« U> 
cut fin'r or iJMrhi:. 




Sink StrairwT ; k*«i>« z»r^*»%* 

HOMK "MAV MAVJ/- 






509 



io8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT 

Tubs, I or 2 $3.00 

soapstone 7.00 oif 8. 00 each 

Washboard 25 to .50 

Wringer 2.75 " 4.50 

Boiler 1.75" 3.00 

Pails, 2 or more, "Fibrotta" 50 

Baskets, 1 or 2 1.25 to 2.50 

Dipper 15 

Soap dishes 15 

Clothes stick 10 

Clothes line and reel for same 50 to 1.10 

Clothes pins, 1 gross 25 up 

Skirt board 1.25 " 

Bosom " 25 

Whisk 10 

Sad-irons, 3 at least 60 

Iron stand or asbestos mat 15 

Holders 20 

Clothes horse 75 

Small vegetable or nail brush 10 

Scrubbing brush 15 

Ironing sheet 30 

Blanket or felt 1.00 up 

Watering pot 15 " 

Average Estimate ^18.00 



ADDITIONAL UTENSILS FOR SEPARATE LAUNDRY 

Stove $8.00 to J25.00 

Coal hod 25 •' .75 

Shovel, poker lifter. 25 

Basins, 2 50 

Saucepan or kettle for starch 50 

Strainer 10 

Pans or tub for starch 30 

Earthen bowls. 3 or more 30 

Wooden or agate spoons, 2 30 

Table or laundry settle 2.00 to 6.75 

Case knife 15 

Broom or floor brush 50 " 2.00 

>imall brush 50 

Dustpan 25 

Scrub brushes, 2 80 

Chair 70 

Total Estimate, liberal $40.00 

•« " fair 4.00 to $5.00 



510 



BUYING SUPPLIES 109 

LAUNDRY SUPPLIES 

( soft, 
Soap, \ hard, and 

I sand. 

Borax 07 per lb. 

Washing soda 03 

Chloride of lime .10 

Alum 07 

Paraffin or Spermaceti 15 

Beeswax (pure) 35 

Gum Arabic 50 

French ball blue or ultramarine 25 

Ammonia (pure) 25 per qt. 

Alcohol •••• .40 

Kerosine 09 to . 15 per gal. 

Hydrochloric acid 10 "• oz. 

Acetic acid 10 " 

Oxalic acid (crystals) 05 " 

Starch 10 " pkg. 

Salt Sewing materials 

Sandpaper Buttons 

Bags for boards, line and pins Pins and cushion 

Bags for small articles in boiler Scissors 

Bags for lace curtains Twine 

Cloths for covers Newspapei's 

" scrubbing Thin paper 

Clock Old sheets and flannel 



DINING ROOM FURNISHING 

Rug9xl2ft ^10.00 to $100.00 up 

Shades 90 per window. 

Table 6.00 to $50.00 up. 

Chairs, common 1.75 " tO.OO 

arm,high 3.00" 15.00 

Sideboard 15.00 " 50.00 

Serving table 4.00 " 30.00 

Table linen, 3 cloths 9.00 

4 doz. napkins 10.00 

2 carving cloths 2 . 00 

Tableware (Dinner set, or its equivalent 12.00 to 40.00 

stock pattern) . semi-porcelain China 25. 00 up 

Glassware 2.00 " 

Cutlery, knives, 1 doz. steel blades 3.50 to 8.00 

Carving set 3.00 " 10.00 

Silver-plated, quadruple 

knives per doz 3.50 " 6.00 

forks '' " 4.50" 6.00 

tablespoons " " 5.00 up 

dessertspoons " •' 4.50 " 

teaspoons " " 3.00 " 

Silence cloth 4.6x8 100 

Average Estimate for small family, $75.00 to $150.00 



511 



no HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

BED ROOM FURNISHING 

Matting $10 00 

Rugs 5.00 

Shades and draperies (3 windows) 3 . 00 

Enameled bed with spring 8 . 00 

Mattress 5 00 

2 Pillows 5.0C 

5 Sheets 2.00 

3 Pairs Pillow cases 50 

4 Blankets 10.00 

2 Counterpanes 3 00 

Mattress cover 1 00 

Bureau 10 00 

Washstand 4 . 00 

Table 1 75 

Rocker 2 00 

2 Chairs 3 00 

Couch 8 00 

Toilet set 3 00 

1 doz. Towels .75 

4 Bath Towels 50 

Average Estimate .¥60.00 to $90.00 



up 



to $50.00 
np 



to 75.00 

" 25.00 

" 10.00 

up 



KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 



Floor 
Covering 



Stove 



Utensils 



In selecting kitchen furnishings it will be found 
that a linoleum covering for the floor will give the 
greatest satisfaction, preferably one which is entirely 
plain or with a pattern which extends all the way 
through. Next to linoleum, a hardwood floor. An 
oilcloth is unsatisfactory, unless it be, perhaps, the 
best quality, for a small family which will not give it 
hard wear. A painted floor is hard to care for and is, 
in many respects, least desirable. 

In selecting a stove a steel range is by far the most 
desirable, if possible. It is more expensive in first cost 
than a cast-iron stove, but this difference is more 
than offset by efficiency, economy of fuel and dura- 
bility. 

Galvanized iron is the most desirable material for 
such utensils as coal hod, garbage and ash cans and 



512 



KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 



III 



the like, being superior because of its light weight, 
durability and cleanliness. 

A nickeled teakettle with copper bottom is very sat- 
isfactory for general use, costing about $2.50. Alumi- 
num ware is increasing in favor. Its price alone 
limits its use. The price of a teakettle is from $2.25 
up, but the aluminum teakettle wears a lifetime. 
Stransky ware is, next to aluminum, the most durable 
of any for cooking utensils. It is moderate in price, 
the teakettles being $1.75 to $2.25. Tin is very unde- 
sirable for almost all cooking utensils, as water and 
acids act upon the tin, forming unhealthful chemical 
compounds. For such uses as are allowable, one 
should buy block tin with rolled edge. The grade is 
readily seen by markings on the back. The cheapest 
is marked X, medium XX, best XXX or XXXX. 
Those tins which have fewest crevices and seams are 
best. 

Sheet-iron bread tins with dull surface are excellent. 

Woodenware should be used as little as possible, 
as it is difficult to keep it sweet, dry and free from 
odors and insect life. Bread and meat boards and 
chopping trays are usually of wood. These should 
never be cheap in quality, as the w^ood of such is 
soft and not well seasoned, so that it cracks and peels 
easily. Wooden spoons should be those designated as 
the French holly. 

Glass or porcelain jars are excellent for spices 
and such articles as rice, tapioca, coffee, tea, etc. 



Materialg 



Wooden 
Ware 



513 



112 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 




A MOVABLE KITCHEN CABINET, USEFUL WHEN THERE 
IS NO BUILT-IN CABINET. 



514 



KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 113 

These should be neatly labeled and conveniently ar- 
ranged in order on shelves in a cupboard near the 
cooking table. 

Iron for cooking utensils is almost a thing of the iron 
past. Although most durable, the weight is sufhcient utenSS 
to banish it. Agate or Stransky have taken the place 
to a great extent. Agate ware has depreciated greatly 
in quality since first introduced. The best of it is 
more durable and safer than enamel ware. Sheet 
iron frying pans are best, as they endure the highest 
heat. Steel is next. Agate may be used for certain 
things. 

Chairs should be tested for comfort. Wooden ones, ' chairs 
if properly constructed, may be very comfortable. 
The shape and length of back, seat and legs greatly 
affect the comfort. A high stool is a strength saver 
when working at the table. 

Tables constructed for kitchen use are a great addi- Tables 
tion in modern furnishings. They are supplied with 
drawers for knives, spoons and such small utensils. 
Those of white wood are cheapest, pine being about 50 
I)er cent more. The drawer increases the expense 
slightly, but this will not be grudgingly paid by one 
who has once enjoyed the advantage secured. The 
top should be unfinished, very smooth and even. It 
should be made of one piece of wood to avoid cracks. 
Oilcloth may be used as a covering, although less 
convenient because of the care necessary to avoid 
setting anything hot on it. Paivit is altogether unde- 
sirable for the same reason. 



515 



TABLE AND BED LINEN, TOWELLING, ETC. 

In buying cotton and linen material for the various 
needs of the house, one must consider the use to be 
made of it and select accordingly. Towelling suitable 
for glass and silver is not suitable for cooking uten- 
sils, and vice versa. If cast ofif garments, old bed 
linen and the like are thriftily cherished and pre- 
served, much exDense is saved and frequently better 
cloths secured than in using new. For scrubbing 
purposes a soft cloth that will not scratch is desirable, 
at the same time it must have a certain firmness and 
roughness for the friction necessary. One of the best 
materials for general purposes of this kind is the 
woven underwear. Outing flannel and ''mill ends" 
are also excellent. 

For drying, cloth with good absorbing quality is 
necessary. Cotton is undesirable, especially if new 
and not worn until softened. Linen is best for the 
purpose and is easiest to care for. It gives off less 
lint than cotton. Cheap qualities are less well pre- 
pared and scratch. 

For dish towels, a medium light weight linen towel- 
ling is best, a still heavier for the china dishes, while 
a firm, heavy crash, like the Royal Russian, is service- 
able for cooking utensils. The latter is also excel- 
lent for kitchen hand towels. 

For washing dishes the small mops are excellent 
for glassware and are preferred by many for the 

114 



516 



TABLE AND BED LINEN 115 

entire dish washing. Thcv are inexpensive and are 
not difficult to keep sweet with proper care. Cheese- 
cloth is very satisfactory for silver and glass. 

Cheesecloth should be kept on hand for various 
purposes, as wiping meat, drying lettuce when washed, 
tying up fish to boil, straining soups and jellies, dust 
cloths and many other uses. It is easily cleansed, is 
soft and readily absorbent when old and is free from 
lint. For drying windows and lamps cheesecloth is 
excellent, or old napkins rough dried. Old cotton, as 
sheets and pillow cases, is fairly good. 

Hand towels may be of crash, damask or huckaback. 
If the latter, the Scotch or Irish is the best. The 
choice of material depends upon individual preference 
of smooth or rough surface. The damask is soft, fine 
and smooth, the huckaback rougher. The Irish hucka- 
back is woven with smooth dots for overthreads and 
is a fine grade. The Scotch is woven looser and is 
more showy. It is cheaper, but is good when washed. 
The damask toweling is a poor absorbent, because 
of its smooth, satiny surface. It is cheapest to buy 
huckaback by the yard and hemstitch it. Fringed 
towels should be avoided, as they are difficult to iron 
well and the fringe eventually wears off, leaving un- 
sightly ends. If fringed at all it should be tied. 

Turkish toweling of good quality is best for bath 
towels. Although cotton, it is so woven as to be 
readily abs^^rbent. 



517 



Sheeting 



Bleach 



Brands of 

Cotton 

Cloth 



Size of 
Sheets 



BED LINEN 

Sheeting was formerly woven in narrow widths 
only one yard wide, necessitating laborious seaming in 
the middle of a sheet. At the present time it is pos- 
sible to secure sheeting woven for single, two-thirds 
or double beds, so that hems at top and bottom are 
the only needful sewing. Ready made sheets and 
pillow cases may also be bought in most places, less 
carefully made than home-made, but temptingly inex- 
pensive, and conveniently ready for use. In provid- 
ing in either way one should have the size of the bed 
carefully in mind and secure sheets and pillow cases 
ample in size. 

Cotton suitable for this purpose comes bleached, 
half-bleached or unbleached. The unbleached is two 
or three cents per yard cheaper than the bleached, 
and is more durable, this being due to the fact of 
chemicals being used in the process of bleaching which 
affect the fibre. This is, however, not often selected 
on account of the color. The half -bleached is less 
objectionable. 

There is considerable choice in the different brands 
of cotton. Among the best are the Wamsetta, Fruit 
of the Loom and Pequot. 

For a full sized double bed, one should buy the 
lo quarters width of sheeting, for a two-thirds width 
bed 8 quarters, and for a cot or single bed 6 quarters. 
Pillow casing will vary to fit the size of the pillow, 5 

116 



518 



TABLE AND BED LINEN 117 

quarters or 45 ins. being a large size and 42 ins. 
medium. 

• The price depends upon tbe brand and size. The i*ri»e 
best Wamsetta in the 10 quarters width is 40c per 
yard, 5 quarters width i8c, while cheaper grades may 
be had at 28c for the 10 quarters width and 12 i-2c for 
the 5 quarters. 

Made sheets, entirely plain, in the best Wamsetta 
brand are about as follows: 

90 in. X 99 in 85c 

y2 in. X 99 in 75c 

Cheaper : 

90 in. X 99 in 75c 

72 in. X 99 in 55c 

The tubing for pillow slips, woven without seams, 
are about : 

45 in 14c 

42 in 13c 

36 in I2C 

Made up 15c each, up 

The unbleached may be secured of Pequot cotton in 
the made sheets, largest size, 55 cents each. 



TABLE LINEN 

Most of the material sold as table linen is imported. 
Its manufacture has been attempted in this country, 
but the temperature is unfavorable, so that the result 
is an inferior quality. 

There are three leading supplies — the Irish, Scotch 
and German, "^^'e Belgian, Austrian and French being 



Gradei 



519 



ii8 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Hints on 
Selecting 



included under the latter. The Irish is considered the 
best and is most expensive. 

Bleaching Thc tinic of l)leaching- is a large factor in deter- 

mining the value of the linen. Bleaching takes from 
the weight. The natural and best method is the grass 
bleaching in summer; next to that the snow. Arti- 
ficial methods take from the strength of the fabric. 
It is difficult even for experts to detect the method. 
It is known by the times of coming into market. The 
grass bleached comes into the retail market about the 
middle of December, making this the desirable time 
to purchase. 

A fine thread damask may not be a superior wear- 
ing fabric. The weight is the criterion. The best 
fabrics are not too fine, firm but not stifif and heavy 
with starch. Those w^ith a more elastic, leathery ap- 
pearance are better. Those patterns are less durable 
which have long unbroken threads. 

Thc German damask has a closer, harder twisted 
thread than the others, making it a very durable 
linen. The Germans cater less to variety of pattern 
and therefore produce less showy cloths, but they are 
very durable and are also less expensive. 

Patterns In selecting a pattern a medium-sized pattern, as the 

tulip is very satisfactory. It is a matter of taste to a 
great extent. Large patterns are more effective than 
small but the latter are good taste. Some patterns are 
so generally liked as to become stock patterns, as the 
snowdrop. Tliesc can be found in all stores. Wit'- 



German 
Damask 



520 



TABLE AND BED LINEN 



121 



other patterns only a few are woven and these are 
distributed to a few stores or a few of each to each 
store. The Scotch have excellent patterns, are finished 
about as w^ell as the Irish and cost less. 

In buying one should, if possible, have the exact 
measurements of the table on v/hich a cloth is to be 
used. An average length is 21-2 yards, 1-4 to 1-3 
yard should be allow^ed to drop at each end if the table 
be square. Two dozen napkins should be allowed for 
each cloth. 

Material may be purchased by the yard or in pattern 
lengths. The latter are 50-75 cents per yard more. 
The German linen runs from 50 cents to $1.50 per 
yards. The Scotch in the bleached run from 50 cents 
to $2.00 or over per yard. The Irish even in un- 
bleached begins at 75 cents or $1.00 per yard and may 
be $2.50 or $3.00. The latter are, of course, very 
beautiful goods, but for common use and durability a 
good quality may be secured for $i.oo-$2.oo per yard. 

Napkins vary in size from 5-8, as they are termed at 
the store (17-22 in.) known as breakfast size, to 3-4 
(23-27 in.) and 7-8 (29-31 in.), the latter being 
very large. 

There is less difference in the price of napkins in 
the different makes. In either the 20 in. napkins vary 
in price from $1.75 per dozen up. Good ones are 
$3.oo-$3.50 per dozen. 

A heavy cloth* known as the silence cloth, is an es- 
sential accompaniment to a well appointed table. This 



Size 



Price 



Napkins 



Silence 
Cloth 



521 



122 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

may be of felt, or two faced cotton flannel or may be 
a quilted or knitted cloth on purpose. 

Canton flannel, 54 inches wide, 50c yard ; quilted, 54 
inches wide, 62 i-2c yard; knitted, 62 inches wide, 75c 
yard give relative prices. 

CARPETS AND RUGS 

A square of carpet with a border of hard wood 
brought to a high polish, or even a i)ainted border or 
denim or some similar material is preferable to a carpet 
covering the entire floor and tacked down, besides 
the greater attractiveness it is much more cleanly, as 
this can be taken out of doors for frequent beating. 
Grades Of the different grades Ingrain is the cheapest. It 

is loosely woven, and although its wearing qualities 
are surprising considering the price, it is not the wisest 
choice for those who may choose. The dirt goes 
through it easily. Pleasing colors are difficult to se- 
cure as these carpets are colored with chemical dyes 
which are less soft and pleasing in effect than the 
vegetable dyes, which are used in the best grades. In- 
grain carpeting is more suitable and serviceable for 
chaml)ers than for living rooms. It is reversible. 

Tapestry comes next in value, resembling Brussels 
on the right side but having a canvas back with colors 
on one side only. This wears fairly well. 

Brussels carpeting is heavy, with colors on both 
sides. It wc.'irs excellently well and generally proves 
best for ordinary use. The Brussels carpeting has an 
uncut pile Cut pile carpets are called velvet carpets, as 



522 



CARPETS AND RUGS 



125 



the Axminster and Wilton. The Wilton wear ad- 
mirably well, and are very satisfactory in colors and 
patterns. 

In buying by the yard the Ingrains are usually a 
yard wide, while Tapestry, Brussels and Velvets are 
but 3-4 of a yard. In practicing strict economy much 
may be saved by buying short lengths, small patterns 
or old styles. 

Small patterns, sober colors and indefinite designs 
are more artistic, cheaper and more serviceable than 
the opposite. One should endeavor to secure a gen- 
erally pleasing effect irt a carpet so that the room for 
which it is designed will be made attractive without 
one's being especially conscious through what means 
the effect is produced. A carpet with striking pattern 
and color which arrests and holds attention is not 
pleasing. 

Rugs or squares should not have borders seamed 
at the corners. The joining should rather be directly 
across, thus: 



Suggestion 
for Buying 



Patterns 

and 

Color 



Engt 



523 



126 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Re-made 
Carpets 



Kensington 
Squares 



Smyrnas 



Persians 



A good old carpet can be utilized very satisfactorily 
by being re-woven by some of the reliable firms which 
have taken up the business. Even carpeting of dif- 
ferent kinds may be used together in this way, if 
they are all-wool. A difference in color does not 
matter as the material is recolored as desired. 

Ingrain or Kensington squares, as they are often 
called, are more expensive when real and imported 
than the American squares. The price is by the yard. 
The usual size of 6 or 7 1-2x9 ^^^^ (2 or 2 1-2x3 
yards) costs $4.00 or $4.75 up. By the square yard 
for carpeting a floor the Ingrain is 70"75c per yard. 

Smyrna rugs are alike on both sides and are very 
serviceable. They cost $20 for a rug, 9x12 feet 
(9'xi2'), $8.oo-$9.oo for a rug, 2x3 feet (2'x3'). 

Wilton's are most nearly like the Oriental rugs, 
and are better than some cheap Persian rugs. 

Persians, 6'x9' cost $30.00 up indefinitely ; Wiltons, 
6'x9' cost $22.00 up; 9'xi6' cost $36.00 up. 

The prices given arc not exact for all times and 
places, of course, but may serve as an indication of 
relative costs. 



524 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

PART II 



Read CafefuIIy. Place your name and address on the 
first sheet of the test. Use a lig"ht grade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. L/eave space between an- 
swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before 
answering- the questions. Answer fully. 



1. What is the value of system in house work? 

2. OutHne in detail a system for the household with 

which you are most familiar. 

3. Judging from your own experience, how long 

should it take to perform the daily tasks of 
house work, such as dusting the living room, 
washing the dinner dishes, sweeping a bed 
room, etc? 

4. If you have employed servants, have you met 

with satisfactory results? 

5. If so, what do you regard as the causes of your 

success ? 

6. Have you made any observations in general, of 

aid in the study of domestic service problems? 

7. Do you know of any efforts among women to 

correct the situation, either as steps toward 
solution, or study of the situation ? 

8. What is your attitude toward non-resident labor 

in the home? 



525 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

9. Taking into account fuel, supplies, and your own 
time and labor, what can you say of the rela- 
tive cost and results of laundry work done in 
and outside the house? 

10. What constitutes a legitimate bargain ? 

11. What elements aid the flourishing ''bargain'* 

counters of our stores? 

12. What has been your experience in buying as to 

"the best is the cheapest?" 

13. Give a list of what you regard as ten real and 

profitable conveniences in kitchen furnishing. 

14. Give a similar list of uneconomical articles, be- 

cause rarely used or not as useful as supposed 
when purchased. 

15. What kinds of linen are there? 

16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of 

rugs ? Of carpets ? 

17. Add any suggestions arising from the study of 

this section. 
N jte — After completing the test, sign your full name. 



526 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

PART III 



MARKETING 



A practical knowledge of marketing on the part 
of the housewife affects to a marked degree both the 
comfort and expense-book of the family. Intelligence 
and skill in buying are only secured by careful prac- 
tice. The purchaser must not fear to ask questions. 
Most men with whom she will have to deal will be 
found to be patient, helpful, painstaking and reliable, 
yet she must make sure by sufficient trials that the 
cuts of meat, etc., recommended are, all things con- 
sidered, those that are best adapted to meet the needs 
of her family. 

It is usually greatly to one's advantage to select a 
regular place for marketing. Greater consideration is 
shown such customers and better satisfaction results. 
Time is saved, and usually it proves to be quite a? 
economical, often more so. Disappointments are less 
liable to occur than in buying more generally. 

The fact of buying regularly at the same place 
should not, however, lead to the erroneous idea that 
a telephone may be substituted for frequent visits to 
the market. This is a mistake which is increasing 
rapidly in America. Orders given in this way, by note, 

127 



Buying 



Regular 
Customers 



Use of 
Telephone 



527 



128 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



B.easonable 
Time 



Supply 
of Meats 



or to the driver at the door are hable to be less 
satisfactory than those which are given at the store 
where selection can be made by the purchaser. 
The telephone may be resorted to occasionally 
in cmerg-encies, but should not take the place of regu- 
lar visits. The greater satisfaction to be secured 
through personal selection, the greater variety secured 
by seeing otherwise unthought-of articles and the 
closer economy possible more than offset the additional 
time consumed. 

More than a single day's order may be given at a 
time. All orders needing prompt filling, as meats and 
vegetables, should be given in ample season, usually 
the day before, so that there may be sufficient time to 
fill the order without discomfort to those who serve. 
This is only reasonable consideration for others, be- 
sides securing for one's self the avoidance of disap- 
pointments which are very apt to occur when too 
limited time is allowed in filling the order. It is evi- 
dence of an inexcusable lack of foresight when a 
housewife plans so little beyond the immediate need 
as to leave the ordering of roast beef for a twelve- 
o'clock dinner until lo o'clock of the morning it is 
desired. 

Meats are, perhaps, the most difficult to understand 
and to buy to advantage. A few }Tars ago the sup- 
ply of meats was practically all local, but at the present 
time only veal and lamb are supplied locally in places 
of any considerable size. The supply of beef and pork 



528 



BEEF 129 

for the United States is almost wholly from the West, 
Chicago being the chief center, especially for the 
wholesale beef trade. Some of the objections raised 
by those who oppose the consumption of meat because 
of supposed unwholesome and unsanitary conditions 
of killing, storing and transporting, are practically 
without foundation at the present time. Conditions 
have been greatly improved within the last few years 
and great sanitary precautions are exercised. The 
large houses of Chicago are rendered thoroughly sani- 
tary and are carefully inspected by United States of- 
ficers who also inspect every animal killed, and tag the 
meat for shipping. Each quarter is numbered, the 
car in which it is shipped is also numbered and a rec- 
ord made of the meat sent. In this way any com- 
plaints can be readily traced. The transportation is 
now done by the use of refrigerator cars. 

BEEF 

The quality of beef depends upon several conditions. Quality 
The age of the animal when killed, the breed, the man- 
ner of fattening, the amount of exercise and the length 
of time the beef is allowed to cure before using, all ef- 
fect the quality of the meat to a marked degree. The 
"prime" age of an animal for killing is 4 years, but 
the beef of a creature from 4 to 8 years of age is 
good. Beyond that age meat is apt to be tough and 
unsatisfactory. Although grass-fed animals are 
healthier than stall-fed, the latter is customarv, or, at 



529 



130 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Texture 

and 

Color 



Position 
of Bones 



least, a combination of the two. Exercise toughens 
the muscles but if moderate, is considered desirable in 
rendering an animal healthier and the meat finer fla- 
vored. Beef has the finest flavor and is most tender 
when kept as long as possible before using. Three 
weeks is usually the shortest time allowed for this 
curing when conditions of storage are such as to per- 
mit. 

Meat should be selected which is firm and fine- 
grained. The color should be bright red, the fat yel- 
lowish white. The flesh and fat of old beef is darker, 
dry and coarser. Beef becomes dark through stand- 
ing exposed to the air. One should distinguish care- 
fully between a mere surface discoloration which may 
be trimmed off and the rest of the cut found to be en- 
tirely fresh and suitable to use, and the decomposition 
which gives a taint to the entire piece. 

In buying, economy demands in general, that the 
amount of bone in a cut should be small in proportion 
to the amount of meat. In order to buy wisely and 
successfully it is necessary to have in mind a clear 
idea of the anatomy of the animal, also the muscle- 
fibre arrangement. These are seen in the beef in 
the illustrations. The vertebrae making up the back- 
bone differ sufiiciently so that wnth study one may 
recognize the different ones in the cuts of meat. The 
backbone is split in dividing the body into halves so 
that but one-half will be found in a joint of meat 
Study the illustrations carefully. 



530 



BEEF 




SKELETON OF BEEF. 

!, Neck; 2, Six Chuck Ribs; 3, Seven Prime Ribs and Loin; 4, Thick or 

Hip Sirloin; 5a, Top of Rump; 6a, Aitch Bone or Rump Piece; 

b, Cartilage; c, Shoulder Blade; d. Cross Ribs. 




MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT OF BEEF. 

3, Head; 2, Neck; 3, Chuck Ribs and Shoulder Blade; 4, Seven Prime 

Ribs; 5, Loin; 6, Thick Sirloin, called Boneless Sirloin in Chicago, 

Back of Rump in Boston; 7-8, Rump Piece in New York; 8, Aitch 

Bone; 9, Round; lO, Leg; a. Top of Sirloin; b, Flank; 

c, Plate; d, Brisket. (Redrawn from Ilo?ne 

Economics by Miria Parloa.) 



531 



Arrangement 
of Muscles 



Carving 



132 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

A knowledge of the muscle fibres and their arrange- 
ments is as important in buying, cooking and carving 
meat as familiarity with the location of the bones. 
The lean of meat is made up of muscular tissue. This 
consists of prism-shaped bundles, divisible under the 
microscope into minute tubes or muscle fibres. These 
fibres are held together in bundles by connective tissue 
which is readily distinguished by 
holding up a loosely connected 
piece of meat and noting the thin, 
filmy membrane. When meat is 
cut "across the grain" these bundles 
of fibres are severed and the ends 
appear. The membrane forming 
the walls of these tubes is very deli- 
cate and elastic. 

Carving has a great effect upon 
the apparent toughness of the cut 
of meat. In the accompanying il- 
lustration, a shows the muscular 
bundle, a fibre partially separated into its minute tubes, 
while b shows the fibre cut across the grain as it should 
be in carving. In this way the fibres are broken into 
smaller pieces as an aid to digestion and the contents 
of the tubes are set free, thus being more accessible 
for the digestive juices than when the meat is carved 
lenofthwise of the fibres. 





Fibres of Meat. 



532 



BEEF 



133 



In cutting up a beef 
the body is first cut 
through the backbone 
laying it open in ''sides" 
or halves. Each half is 
then divided into quarters, 
called the fore quarter 
and the hind quarter, as 
will be seen in the illus- 
tration. The muscle fibres 
run very irregularly in 
the fore quarter. This, to- 
gether with the fact that 
they are coarser and have 
on the whole more exer- 
cise than those of the hind 
quarter to toughen them, 
renders the meat of the 
fore quarter of a less de- 
sirable, cheaper grade. 
The finest cuts of an ani- 
mal come from the middle 
of the creature, in the 
most protected, least ex- 
ercised parts, decreasing 
in value as they lie to- 
ward either extremity. 
Cuts differ somewhat in different cities 




Cutting' 
Up 



SIDE OF BEEF. 
aa. Suet; h. Thin Eixd of Tender- 
loin; ad. Thick End of Tenderloin ; 
e. Inside or Top of Round ; /, Best 
Part of Round; g. Sternum; 
h. Thick Brisket: ?. Thin 
Brisltet; j. Flank. 



According to 
the Boston cut, for instance, three ribs are left on the 



533 



134 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



hind quarter, ten on the fore quarter. In New York 
all the ribs are cut on the fore quarter. Beef is best 
from a creature weighing 800 to 900 pounds. 




CUTS OF BEEF ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE. 



Fore Quarter 

Weight An average fore quarter weighs about 200 pounds. 
It is divided into : 

1. Neck. 

2. Chuck. 

3. Ribs. 

4. Sticking piece. 

5. End of ribs. ) Sometimes called together 

6. Brisket. \ Rattleran. 

7. Shin or shank. 

The fore quarter as a whole being coarser is used 
chiefly for canned meat, stews, soup meat and corned 



534 



BEEF 



135 



covid Cut 
found 



beef. The neck is best used for mince meat. Prices 
on all meats differ too widely to make it possible to 
state with accuracy for all 
places, but that we may be 
guided somewhat by price 
in estimating values, aver- 
age prices will be given. 
For this cut 8 cents a pound 
.is an average price. 

The Chuck lies just be- 
hind the neck, including the 
first five ribs. This cut may 
be used in a variety of 
ways, as cheap steak, roast, 
pot roast or stew. Several 
of the cheaper cuts indi- 
cated as possible roasts or 
steak cuts were formerly 
used much more commonly 
than now for such pur- 
poses. As our country has 
grown more prosperous 
there has been a great in- 
crease in the demand for 

the better cuts until many markets are forced to buy 
extra loins, etc., to meet the demand. A very fair 
small one rib roast may be cut from this portion. The 
chuck sells for about 12 1-2 cents a pound. 

The Ribs are used chiefly for roasts and constitute 
the best of the fore quarter. The portion lying nearest 



The Neck 




kci 



h*nK 



SIDE OF BEEF, U. S. DEPT 
AGRICULTURE. 



The Chuck 



The Ribs 



535 



136 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



First Cut 
of the Ribs 



Sticking 
Piece 



End of 
the Ribs 



the hind quarter is very nearly the same in quaHty. 
There is a decided preference in the rib roasts. The 
"first cut of the ribs," as it is called contains the first 
two or three ribs from the hind quarter, differing ac- 
cording to the size of roast desired. Cut long, that is 
with the thin end pieces left on, such a roast brings 
as high as 17 to 27, cents a pound, while "cut short," 
that is with the thin rib ends removed, it sells in some 
places as high as 20 to 30 cents a pound. Following 
this cut are the second and third cuts, the third join- 
ing the "first cut of the chuck. These are not as high 
in quality or price, 15 to 18 cents a pound. The sec- 
ond cut is a very good roast. 

The Sticking Piece is a cut between the neck and 
brisket, so called from the custom of bleeding there 
after killing. Although the fibre is coarse and tough 
in this piece it is an excellent piece when properly 
used. It is especially fine for beef tea, since for that, 
one should select as juicy a piece as possible. From 
the method of bleeding much blood collects in this 
piece and it is particularly juicy. It may be used for 
stews also where long, slow cooking renders the mus- 
cle fibre tender and sets free a portion of the rich 
juices. 

The End of the Ribs is often called the plate piece 
or rattleran. Although this portion has a liberal sup- 
ply of bones they are thin, and generous allowance 
is made for that fact in the price. It is an especially 
desirable piece for corned beef if it is to be pressed 



536 



BEEF 137 

and served cold, as it has a good supply of fat blended 
with the lean and hardens to cut well. 

The Brisket is much preferred for corned beef by The 
some. It is a more solidly lean piece on the whole, 
thus carving better when hot. It is to a large extent 
a matter of choice as regards the amount of fat de- 
sired. There is a difference recognized at markets be- 
tween the thick end of the brisket, called "fancy 
brisket," and the thinner end, the former being con- 
sidered superior. The brisket corned brings as high 
as 15 cents a pound where there is good demand, while 
the rib piece is not over 8 cents, sometimes as low as 
6 cents. 

The Shin is used for soup meat. It is divided into The shin 
three pieces, more meat being found on the upper 
piece. Many make a great mistake in throwing away 
the smallest, most bony part supposing it to be value- 
less, w^hich is far from true. It is rich in gelatin and 
those properties which are desired in soup stock. The 
shin usually sells for not over 5 cents a pound. 

The Hind Quarter 

While there is a great variety in the possible cuts of ^^^^ 
the hind quarter they may be classed in general as 
follows : 

1. Loin. 4. Shin. 

2. Rump. 5. Flank. 

3. Round. 



537 



138 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Sirloin 



Tenderloin 



Fillet 



The location of these sections will be seen by con- 
sulting page 135. The entire loin is frequently called 
the "sirloin." The choicest steaks and roasts are cut 
from this part. The first two slices from the end 
where the loin joins the ribs are called the first cuts of 
the sirloin. These are not as tender or desirable as 
those which follow. After these are removed, the 
tenderloin begins to appear which lies on the under or 
inside of the loin and being so protected is very tender. 
The slices which include the largest portions of 
tenderloin are considered the best and bring the high- 
est price. Some of these slices when trimmed bring 
as high as 35 or 40 cents a pound. 

It would seem that the tenderloin is greatly over- 
rated in some instances, since, except for the fact 
of its being especially tender, it is not more desirable. 
It is not as rich in juices or flavor as the rest of the 
loin. The entire tenderloin is used for what is known 
as a "fillet." When removed and sold separately for 
this purpose it costs as high as 60 cents to $1.00 a 
pound since the remainder of the loin is rendered 
thereby far less salable. On the other hand, for one 
who washes a delicious roast at moderate expense this 
loin with the tenderloin removed is very desirable. 

In buying for a fillet roast it is far the wisest plan to 
buy the entire loin or section necessary to give the size 
desired, at 35 cents a pound, have the tenderloin re- 
moved for the fillet roast and the rest reserved for 
other uses, as steaks or later roasts. The thinner end 



538 



BEEF 139 

of the tenderloin which extends into the rump is 
cheaper, about 35 cents a pound. Some cheaper fillets 
are sometimes to be found in the markets but are not 
desirable, as they are from inferior beef. 

The Rump lies back of the loin. As a whole it The 

^ Rump 

weighs about 52 pounds. It is divided into three sec- 
tions, known as back, middle cut and face. This por- 
tion is sometimes called hip or thick sirloin. It may 
be used for steaks or roasts, while some of the less de- 
sirable parts are used for pot roasts, braising, etc. 
The part nearest the loin is termed the back ; it is 
the best part for all uses except for steaks. Next to 
that, the middle, the face having more muscle. 

A cut from the rump which is excellent for a variety Aitch 
of uses in the Aitch bone. It is satisfactory for a cheap 
roast, braising and the like. It weighs about six 
pounds usually and may be bought for 7 to 12 cents a 
pound. There is not enough bone included to offset 
the difference between this price and the 25 cents a 
pound which portions of the rump may bring, as the 
middle cut. The face makes a good piece for corning. 

The Round is divided into top and bottom, so called Th® ^ 

^ Round 

because of the way in which the leg is laid upon the 
block to be cut up. The outside, being laid down, is 
called the bottom round, while the inside, being on 
the top as it is laid down is called the top round. The 
difference in quality to be found between the two 
divisions is what would be expected from the rule 
stated earlier concerning the greater toughness of the 



539 



140 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

more exposed and exercised parts of the animal. The 
bottom of the round being nearest the skin is the 
tougher and cheaper meat. The top round is used for 
a very fair quaHty of steak. The bottom round is 
better for braising, stews, etc. A vein divides the two 
sections so that it is easy to separ^^te them. The top 
may bring 22 to 25 cents a pound, while the poorest 
parts may be secured for 12 1-2 cents. 
Shin The Shank or Shin is used as that of the fore 

Flank quarter, for soup. The Flank is usually corned, sell- 
ing for 7 to 10 cents a pound. It is a thin piece and 
has a good mixture of fat. 

Summary of Cuts of Beef 

Passing over the various cuts of beef in review, then, 
we may consider the cuts most desirable for the dif- 
ferent methods of cooking which we employ in the 
order of their desirability, regardless of cost. 
Small The selection of a roast of meat for a small family 

Roasts ,.-^ 1 . . . 

is the most difficult, since the larger the roast the bet- 
ter. Nothing smaller than a two-rib roast is very sat- 
isfactory to attempt to roast. Unless one is willing 
to roast less thoroughly the first day and reroast the 
second, or is willing to serve cold roast, the selection 
is very much limited. For such a family a rump fillet 
or Aitch bone is, perhaps, most satisfactory. The finest 
larger roasts are to be obtained from the first three 
cuts of the sirloin, and next to these the first cut of 
the ribs. Following these are the second and third 



540 



BEEF 



141 



cuts of the ribs, the back of the rump and a chuck 
roast. A rib-roll is a roast prepared by removing the 
bones, rolling and tying. It is thus made easier to 
carve. If one has a roast prepared in this way, she 
should have the bones sent home to be used in the 
soup kettle. 

There is little to be said in addition concerning the 
selection of cuts for steak, since in general meat that is 
especially desirable for roasts is equally good for slic- 
ing for steaks. The best is especially desirable here, 
since there is less opportunity to practice skill in cook- 
ing, which in other modes of preparing may avail 
greatly to improve an otherwise undesirable piece. It 
is not as pleasing to the majority of people to have 
meat served as steak unless it be fairly tender and 
juicy. In the main it is more satisfactory to those 
who should economize closely to rely upon other cuts, 
buying an occasional good steak for variety and espe- 
cial luxury. 

While it is true that the better the piece of meat 
the better the result as a general thing, it is possible 
and desirable to save expense to some extent where 
it may be done without serious loss. The meat to be 
cut for Hamburg steak need not be of the best, since 
it is rendered more digestable by the mincing. The 
top of the round is quite good enough, while the bot- 
tom round or even the shoulder and flank are used, al- 
though less satisfactorily. 

The top of the round, eighth to the thirteenth ribs, 
first cut of chuck, the cheaper of the rump cuts, the 



Selection 
of Steaks 



Cheaper 
Cuts 



541 



142 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Braising 
Cuts 



Corned 
Beef 



Cuts for 
Stews 



Beef 

Heart 



flank and leg may all be used for braising or pot roasts. 
By this method of cooking much is done to soften 
tough pieces, rendering them more digestible and ac- 
ceptable, so that the cheaper cuts are made very palata- 
ble in the hands of a skillful cook. 

The order of preference for corned beef might be, 
brisket, rump, piece from the chuck, plate, shoulder. 
Others would select the shoulder or chuck first for the 
reasons already mentioned. The flank is sometimes 
corned, but it is not considered a wise choice since it 
is not well protected by fat or bone as meat for corn- 
ing should be to prevent the loss of the juices in the 
process of corning. 

For stews it is desirable to extract some or all the 
juices from the meat. The meat is finely divided be- 
fore cooking and the methods applied are those of 
slow, long cooking. The flank, leg and sticking piece 
are found to be very good for these purposes. Thus 
we find that all the animal may be used to good pur- 
pose in one or another of the ways indicated. The 
family that lives in the country and raises and provides 
its own supply finds it necessary to utilize all the parts. 
Those that depend on city markets are more ignorant 
of the different cuts and are as a result inclined to be 
much more extravagant, not having as wide experi- 
ence in learning to prepare the cheaper cuts in an ac- 
ceptable way. 

Beef Heart is an economical and palatable meat. It 
is solid, and a good sized heart will serve fourteen 



542 



BEEF 143 

people. There is nothing to be feared in having some 
left, as it is even better to serve cold for a breakfast or 
supper dish than when hot. The most satisfactory way 
of cooking is to boil it three or four hours, cool, clean 
of coagulated blood, stufif and bake slowly for three 
hours. It may be braised or stewed. It is one of the 
most inexpensive meats, costing not over 5 cents a 
pound usually. 

One should be very careful in using liver to deter- Liver 
mine that it is in a healthy condition, as it is an organ 
which is not infrequently diseased. It should be clear, 
smooth and without spots. Spots and streaks indicate 
a dangerous condition. Calf's liver is usually preferred 
as more tender and delicate, but the liver from good 
beef is cheaper and satisfactory. There is a great dif- 
ference in it, some being hard and tough. Pig's is 
preferred by some. Calf's bring from 16 to 20 cents a 
pound, while beef's may be procured at from 8 to 10 
cents. 

Kidneys are cooked by some, although not as ex- Kidneys 
tensively as the organs already mentioned. They may 
be stewed or braised. Care should be used in select- 
ing, as in liver. Calf's are preferred, next lamb's, 
mutton and beef. Those weighing from one to two 
pounds may be bought for 8 cents each. 

In selecting a tongue for cooking one should be Tongue 
chosen which is firm and thick, with plenty of fat, as 
the lean and flabby ones do not cook satisfactorily. 
Those of all animals are used, the beef more often, be- 
cause of its size. They may be bought fresh, smoked 



543 



144 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



or corned. Tongues weighing from four to six 
pounds may be bought at from i6 to i8 cents a pound 
Tripe Tripe is taken from the lining of the stomach of 

the animal. It is sold either simply cleaned or pickled. 
The honey-comb is the better. It is white and tender 
when taken from a healthy animal. The honey-comb 
costs about 10 cent a pound; the plain is a little 
cheaper. The cost of many of these things depends al- 
most wholly upon the demand for them. 
Sweetbreads Swcctbrcads cousist of the pancreas and thymus 

glands of the young calf or lamb which later in its 
life are absorbed or changed so as not to be edible. 
Those from a milk-fed animal are far superior, being 
white, firm and plump, while those from an improperly 
fed animal are dark, flabby and tough. They are 
generally sold in pairs. The pancreas is larger and 
better. They range from 25 or 35 cents to 50 or 75 
cents a pair. What are known as Chicago sweetbreads 
may be bought in Eastern markets at times for $1.50 
a dozen. These are packed on ice. Where the de- 
mand for sweetbreads is great, pork sweetbreads are 
often substituted. These are coarse and dark colored. 
The buyer should learn to distinguish these from 
calves' sweetbreads and refuse them. 



544 



BEEF 145 

Table of Cuts and Uses of Fore and Hind Quarters of Beef 

FORE QUARTERS. 

4 Ribs Good roast. 

6 Chuck Ribs Small steaks, pot roast, stews. 

Neck Cheap Hamburg steak, mince meat. 

Sticking-Piece Mince meat, beef tea, stews. 

^ Thick end » 

Rattle Rand ] Second cut ,- Corned, especially cold sliced. 

<• Thin end ' 

( Navel end 1 
Brisket \ Butt end or |- Excellent for Corning. Perhaps best. 

' Fancy Brisket ' 
Fore-shin Soiip stock, stews. 

HIXD QUARTERS. 

3 Ribs Excellent roast. 

, Tip Finest roast, steaks. 

Loin < Middle Sirloin and porter house steak. 

( First cut Roast and steaks. 

Tenderloin , „ ^ ^, °^ Larded and roasted, or broiled. 

' Steaks 

f Back Best large roasts and cross-cut steaks. 

j Middle Roasts. 

^™P I Face Inferior roasts and stews. 

t Aitch Bone Cheap roast, corned, braised 

. \ Top Steaks, excellent for beef tea. 

I Bottom Hamburg steak, curry of beef. 

Flank Stuffed, rolled and braised or corned. 

Shin or Shank Cheap stews or soup stock. 



545 



YEA3 



Season 
of Veal 



Bob Veal 



While veal is in season all the year in many markets, 
it is best in spring and summer, being at its prime in 
May. The quality of the veal depends to a considera- 
ble extent upon the age and manner of feeding. Six 




CUTS OF A^EAL. ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE. 

to ten weeks is the preferable age at the time of kill- 
ing. When the calf is killed under four weeks of age 
the meat is injurious, so that it is not allowed to be 
sold, such being known as "bob veal." The flesh of 
such immature calves is soft, flabby and gelatinous, 
blue and watery in color instead of fine-grained, tender 
and white with a tendency to pink, as in the healthy 
meat. The meat is best of calves which have been fed 
entirely upon milk. Grass-feeding is the poorest of aR 

146 



546 



VEAL 



H7 



shonK 



In France an especially fine quality is secured by care- 
ful feeding, raw eggs being included in the feed. 

The cuts of veal are similar to those of beef, except Cuts 
simpler. The fore quarter includes only five ribs and to Beef 
is so small that it is easily 
boned and rolled for a good 
sized roast. The entire fore 
quarter weighs 6 to 12 
pounds, and costs 8 to 10 
cents entire or with neck 
removed 10 to 14 cents. 
The neck can be used for 
stew. The head and brains 
are esteemed by many, the 
head being used for soup, 
and the brains cooked in 
various ways. 

The loin includes all that 
is divided into loin and 
rump in the beef. This is 
an excellent roast, the leg 
alone being considered bet- 
ter. The leg is the choicest 
for roasts or for cutlets. 
The shoulder when boned, 
rolled and stuffed makes a 
veal roast. The breast 




sh&TtK 



SIDE OF VEAL. 



IS 



very acceptable cheap 
good for Stew. The 
"knuckle" of veal corresponds to the shin in the beef 
and is especially fine for soup, being highly gelatinous. 



547 



MUTTON AND LAMB 

Mutton is, for most, a most nutritious and easily 
digested meat when of good cjuality and ])roj)erly pre- 
pared, but it may be very uninviting through careless- 
ness in cooking and serving. For this reason, no 




CUTS Ol-' I.AMH, n. S. J)l<:i'AHTJVlKN'r OI'^ A(JUl('UI/rUKK. 

doubt, il is less in favor in this country than beef, 
l.amb is the name ap])lied to the animal until one year 
old, after that it is proi)erly mutton. The age is told 
by the bone of the fore leg, being smooth in the young 
animal but showing ridges which grow deeper and 
deeper with age. Mutton and lamb are in season the 
year n^und. The best mutton is from an animal not 
over 5 years old, ])lumi) with small bones. T.ike the 
beef long curing before consumption is desirable. 

148 



548 



MUTTON AND LAMB 



149 



The usual cuts of mutton are the leg, loin, shoulder, 
neck, breast and flank. The leg is, all things consid- 
ered, the best roast. The fore quarter, or the shoulder 
boned and rolled as in veal, is an excellent cheap 
roast, the choice depending on 
the size of the family. The ribs 
and loin may be used for roasts 
for a small family, but are more 
frequently cut into chops. The 
rib chops are smallest and, there- 
fore, more expensive. They 
must, in fact, be regarded as a 

great luxury, considering the 

price and the proportion of 

bone, but they are much in favor 

for their delicious delicacy and 

fine flavor. The shoulder, breast, 

and best part of the neck are 

excellent for stews, pot pies or 

for boiling. The portion of the 

neck nearest the head is tougher 

anrl is best used for broth for 

which it is especially desirable, 

being rich in flavor and nutriment. 




dey 



SIDE OF LAMB. 



549 



Season 
of Pork 



PORK 



Pork is good only in autumn and winter. A large 
part of the animal is so fat that instead of being sold 
fresh it is salted and sold as salt pork. The ribs and 
loin are the most desirable fresh cuts, being used either 




CUTS OF PORK, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 



Bacon 



for roasts or chops. Care is needed to select a whole- 
some piece, suitable fresh pork having firm, clear and 
white fat and pWk lean, while in the salted pork, one 
should select either a pinkish piece or one without 
color, a yellow appearance not being a good indica- 
tion. A thick, mediumly fat piece of salt pork is bet- 
ter to buy than the thin flank pieces. 

Bacon is secured by smoking the fat pork in addi- 
tion to the salting process. It is a most digestible form 
of fat and is enjoyed by many who do not care for 

150 



550 



POULTRY 



iSi 



other forms of salt pork. It is somewhat more expen- 
sive, salt pork selling for ii to 15 cents, bacon for 15 
to 18 cents per pound. 

Sausages are made either of 
pork alone, or beef and pork, 
or of veal and pork together. 
Those sold in the market are 
usually put up in skin-s. In 
buying sausage one should be 
especially careful to buy a known 
and approved brand. Otherwise 
they are an untrustworthy form 
of meat, as fragments of all 
kinds are easily disposed of in 
this way. The price of sausage 
varies from 12 to 20 cents per 
pound. 

POULTRY 

There is perhaps no other kind 
of meat in which there is more 
need of skill and care in select- 
ing than poultry. Great care is 

necessary in handling, as the flesh easily becomes 
tainted or rendered unhealthful. Some states allow 
fowl to be kept for sale undrawn. This is not only a 
great menace to health, but a thing no thoughtful buyer 
will desire. The excess price charged for what are 
called Philadelphia Chickens comes from the method 
of killing and preparing for market. An improperly 




SIDE OF PORK. 



Care in 
Selecting 



551 



-152 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Method of 
Plucking 



Tests 



drawn chicken is nearly as bad as one sold undrawn, 
in some cases may be even worse. The laws regulat- 
ing the sale of poultry in New York state are such 
that in the majority of cases chickens and turkeys are 
most miserably prepared for market. 

The flavor of the flesh is also afifected by the method 
of plucking, the dry picking being much to be pre- 
ferred, although the appearance of the fowl may be 
less attractive. While scalding aids in removing the 
feathers it also affects the flavor, so that dry-picked 
sell at a higher price. 

In young fowl and turkey the breast bone is soft, 
bending readily, and the flesh is smooth. Hairs over 
the flesh are an indication of age, pin-feathers of a 
young bird. The body should be plump and fat. A 
poor bird is bluish white, thin and often too liberally 
supplied with pin-feathers. Scaly legs are a further 
indication of age, the young having smooth legs. 
While the preference is always for chickens, especially 
for roasting, a good fowl may be thoroughly steamed 
before roasting and so rendered tender and very ac- 
ceptable. It is much greater economy to buy fowl 
as one secures far more meat in proportion to bone, 
and fowl is considerably cheaper. The West has be- 
come a large source of our supply as in meat, espe- 
cially in turkeys. Certain Eastern states like Ver- 
mont and Connecticut have acquired in the past an en- 
viable local reputation, but at the present time a large 
part even of the Eastern trade is in Western turkeys, 



552 



FISH 153 

shipped East in refrigerator cars. Methods of cold 
storage have advanced so far that turkeys may be 
kept a year or more, but not without losing in quality. 

FISH 

Fish deteriorates and becomes injurious sooner than 
any other animal food. Great care should be taken 
to select that which is strictly fresh. It is impossible 
to transport it a great distance and keep it as fresh 
as is necessary for health. For this reason it is not 
wise for those who live inland to rely upon this class 
of food, except such as may be secured from bodies 
of water near home. Fresh fish is firm, with no evi- 
dence of discoloration. Scales and eyes should be 
bright, gills red and fins firm. One should study the 
comparative value of the different varieties, as there 
is great difference in nutritive worth, largely due to 
the greater amount of fat in some, such as salmon. 

In general white fleshed fish has the oil confined in 
the liver and is therefore apt to be a little more digesti- 
ble than the dark fleshed fish where the oil is distribu- 
ted throughout the body. Note: Whitefish, halibut, 
etc. ; salmon, mackerel and bluefish. There is a decided 
difference in texture, firmness and price. 

Haddock is an excellent cheap fish for frying, be- 
ing firmer than cod. It is usually from 8 to 10 cents a 
pound. Halibut is the preference of the more expen- 
sive, costing from 14 to 18 cents. There is less waste 
in halibut, as the slices are from so large a fish that 



Selecting" 



Kinds 



Haddock 



553 



154 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



i^aking 



Boiling 



Local 
Varieties 



the head and tail are not included as in smaller fish. 
This should be taken into account in ordering. 

Cod and bluefish are usually selected from the cheap 
fish for baking. Haddock is also good. The bluefish 
is preferred by most, being somewhat dry and of sweet 
flavor. It is always to be distinguished by a dark 
line running along each side from head to tail. 
While cod and haddock are in season throughout the 
}'ear, bluefish are in season only from May to October 
except as they are frozen and kept in cold storage. A 
frozen fish is not as desirable as fresh, so that the sea- 
son will govern choice somewhat. Halibut and mack- 
erel are good to bake. 

In selecting fish for boiling it is desirable to secure 
a firm fish and a solid piece which can be wrapped in 
cheesecloth and cooked without breaking in pieces. 
Halibut and salmon are especially good for this pur- 
pose. Haddock is the best of the three cheaper fish 
already mentioned. 

The fish already mentioned are those which are best 
as ordinarily found in the city markets. IMany other 
varieties which are very delicious when freshly caught 
lose in flavor so much that it is not very satisfactory 
to try to serve them except when one may secure them 
strictly fresh. Trout, flounders and perch are ex- 
amples. It is an excellent plan to have some system 
of tables showing the season of such foods as have 
a distinct season which can be hung on kitchen wall 
or other available place to show at a glance the most 



554 



FISH 

desirable times to buy the various foods, 
ample, for fish : 

The Season of Fish 



155 

For ex- 



Variety. 


Price. 


t-5 






< 


>> 






pi 
< 








> 





(V 

Q 


Bass— Striped 
or black 


(To be 
filled in 
from lo- 
cal mar- 
ket.) 














Blueflsh 












Butter 














Cod 












Flounders 


























Haddock. 


























Halibut 


























Herring. 


























Lobster.. 












Mackerel . 


























Perch 












Pickerel 












Salmon 


























Shad 












Smelts 














Sword 










Trout 














Weak 




White 





















The same general directions hold for buying shell 
fish. Clams, oysters and lobster are not suitable to be 
eaten unless strictly fresh and procured from sources 
of which the healthfulness of the supply is assured. 
Injurious preservatives are sometimes used in shipping 
to the middle and Western states. Clams and lobster 
may be purchased the year round. Oysters, scallops 
and shrimps are in season from September to March. 
Fish is not a substitute for meat in nutritive value, be- 
cause it has less fat but makes a pleasant change for 
those who are able to purchase under favorable con- 
ditions. 



Season 
of Fisb 



Shell 
Fish 



555 



VEGETABLES 



Season 

and 

Prices 



Liberal 
Supply 



Vegetables arc classified according to their form as 
follows : 



Koots iuul Tubers 



Sahul Plants 



Potatoes 
Turnips 
Parsnips 
IJeets 
Onions 
Radishes 
L Carrots 

( Lettuce 
-, Chicory 
Romaine 



Fruit Vegetables 4 



Corn 
Pumpkin 
Peas 
Beans 
Squash 
Tomato 
Cucumbers 
{ Egg Plant 

Flower Vegetables ] gji^JJ^^^^^ 



In buying one should watch the market for the sea- 
son, as it will vary somewdiat. Vegetables which were 
formerly confined very exclusively to their season are 
to be purchased now at almost any time in large city 
markets which are supplied by hot houses and l)y ship- 
ping from greater distances than was possible before 
methods of shipping became so superior as at the 
present time. Yet the higher prices which prevail for 
fruit and vegetables which are out of season prevent 
a great number from buying except when the prices 
are normal. Nor is this a thing altogether to be de- 
plored. It is a great mistake to rely to any large 
extent upon such products since the quality is never 
equal to that of products grown under natural condi- 
tions, while the frequent use of a vegetable throughout 
the year takes away the keen enjoyment to be realized 
by those who are content to take each as its season 
brings it. Vegetables are a very important article 
of diet and should be liberally supplied at all times. 
For those who have learned to eat all varieties there 



156 



556 



VEGETABLES 



157 



is very fair variety of those which keep through the 
winter. The different varities with season and aver- 
age price will be found in the following table : 

Season of Vegetables 



Variety. 


Price 

.5c qt 
1.5c pk. 

5c b'nch 
10c head 
10c •' 

3c b'nch 

8c head 
IGc " 

8c doz. 

2c each 
10c " 

15c peck 

30c lb. 
40c hun. 
15c peck 

15c b'nch 
3c lb. 
10c peck 

';.5c bu. 

2clb. 

3'? b'nch 

2c lb. 
10c head 
15c peck 

3c each 
2c lb. 
10c qt. 
5c qt. 
2olb. 


.X. 






P. 
< 


X. 


d 

•-5 


d 

>-3 


d 
<^ 

X 












c5 

Q 


Artichokes. 




Asparagus 

Beets.. 








Cabbage. 




















.X. 






Cauliflower. 


















X 








Carrots 
















X. 










Celery 








.X. 


.... 


x. 




'x. 

.X. 
.X 


.X. 




.X. 




Chicory 

Corn. 








Cucumbers 

Egg Plant 

Greens — 

';Beet,... 

'' Dandelion 

Mushrooms. 




Okra 

Onions 














.X. 


x. 










Oyster Plant or 
Salsify 





















x. 


.X. 




Parsnips 








Peas (fresh) 

Potatoes- 
Sweet. 












x. 














Irish 


















.X. 








Pumpkins ... . 


.X. 




.... 




















Radishes . 










Rhubarb. 




Romaine 












Sninach 


x. 














Squash- 
Summer 

Winter ,. . 














x. 


. X. 


.X. 






X 


String Beans 

Tomatoes 












Turnips 





















.X. 































X marks the height of the season, or when it is at its best. 

The prices given are the lowest, or those at the height of the season. 



557 



158 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Quantity 
for Serving 



Selecting 
Vegetablei 



It is sometimes puzzling to determine the quantity 
to order for the number of persons to be served. The 
following estimates may be a guide : 

Artichokes, 1 quart will serve £ people. 



Asparagus, 1 bunch 

Beets, 1 bunch (5) 

Cabbage, 1 good, solid 

Cauliflower, 1 small 

'• good size 

Carrots, 1 large one 

small bunch 

Celery, 1 head (3 bunches) 

Chicory, 1 head 

Corn, 1 doz 

Cucumber, .1 (in salad) . . 

" (sliced).. 

Egg Plant, medium 

Greens, 1 pk 

Onions, 1 qt 

Oyster Plant, 5 stalks 

Parsnips, 2 (1 lb.) 

Peas, 1 pk 

Radishes, 1 bunch 

Rhubarb, 1 lb (in sauce) . . 

Romaine, 1 head 

String Beans, 1 qt 

Tomatoes, 1 qt. (.5) 

Turnips, 1 (2% lbs.) 



4 
' 6-8 

8 
' 4-6 

8 

2 

4 
■ 8-12 

4 
11-12 

4 
2-3 
6-8 
6-8 
4-6 
6-8 
4-6 
4-6 
4-6 

6 
4-6 

4 

6 
4-8 



All vegetables should be fresh, as it is very difficult 
to cook those that are wilted and they lose much in 
flavor. Greens and salad plants should be crisp and 
tender without evidences of lying until bruised and 
partially decayed. Cabbage and cauliflower should 
have solid heads and not be discolored. Medium-sized 
vegetables are preferable to either extreme, usually. 
If small there is large waste, while too large ones are 
apt to be coarse and woody in texture. This applies 
especially to beets, parsnips, peas, beans, rhubarb, etc. 
The heavier potatoes are in proportion to their size 
the better, but medium sized ones are less likely to 
have hollow hearts. The varieties differ greatly as 



558 



VEGETABLES 



159 



the dark green Hubbard is the best 
hard and good sized 



to quality. One must, in general, learn by trial the 
best to be obtained in the local market. The Early 
Rose is an excellent variety. 

In selecting pumpkins choose a heavy one with 
hard shell and deep yellow color. Of winter squashes. 

It should be very 
The crooked neck is the best 
variety of summer squash. The evergreen and coun- 
try gentleman are excellent varieties of sweet corn. 
Spanish onions are the best, being more delicate than 
native but are somewhat higher in price. 

ANIMAL PRODUCTS 

Butter, milk and eggs are all of a nature to require 
the utmost care in purchasing and in storing before 
use. They are easily tainted so as to be spoiled for 
one of sensitive taste, while milk, especially, is proba- 
bly the most frequent transmiter of disease, with the 
exception of water, of all our foods and drinks. Butter 
should be of the best, but a high price is not always a 
test of merit. While some creamery butters bring a 
very high price and take high awards for flavor, so 
that creamery butter as a whole commands a higher 
price than dairy butter, it is not the most desirable. All 
good creameries maintain a high sanitary standard 
and conditions under which the butter is made are 
doubtless superior to' those in the majority of private 
dairies, yet one must go back of the creameries to the 
farms from which the creameries are supplied to de- 
termine the final healthfulness of the product. It is 



Squashes 

and 

Pumpkins 



Butter 

Milk 

Eggs 



559 



i6o 



UOUSIUIOI.I) MANACEMIiNT 



Source 
of Milk 
Supply 



Testing 
EgKS 



here that llic dirticulty lies with creamery Inttter, since 
th« farmers that keep the j)oorest cows and who do not 
understand dairying iiiider ri^ht contHtions arc those 
that supply the creameries, so that one cannot be sure 
that butter made from the cream produced under such 
conditions is healthful. Tt is far better, so far as is 
possible, to buy from an ai)proved private dairy. 

The same may be said of the milk supply. One 
should follow to its source and know without a ques- 
tion that there can be no j)ollution if any milk is con- 
sumed in a raw state by the family. This becomes 
doubly imperative where there are children in the 
family. Jf necessary, a cent or two more in price per 
bottle is little for the sake of safety. 

Eggs are highest in price in winter. A housekeeper 
may take advantage of low prices in the spring or 
fall by buying a supply in advance, l)ut she cannot do 
this unless she can be sure of a cool place to store 
them and is willing to take the trouble to coat each 
Q^g over so that the air may not penetrate the shell. 
Wrapping each in separate paper is a fairly good pro- 
tection. Care must be used not to use anything that 
will cause an unpleasant flavor, as the shells are very 
porous and the contents readily acquire odors of any- 
thing near. A lo per cent solution of silicate of soda 
is an excellent preservative. 

A salt solution is a good test of the freshness of an 
vgg. Two tablespoon fuls of salt for a quart of water 
may be used. If fresh, the Qgg will sink in it; if not 



.S6() 



DRY GROCERIES 



i6[ 



perfectly fresh, will show signs of rising, while a bnd 
egg will float at once. 

DRY GROCERIES 

While most of what has been discussed in the pre- 
vious pages relates to food which must be purchased 
as needed, because perishable, there is a class in buy- 
ing which much time and thought may be saved by 
supplying enough for at least a month in advance. 
This is dry groceries such as sugar, flour, cereals, 
flavorings, coffee (unroasted), tea, chocolate, spices, 
soap, starch, and all like necessities. 

A store-closet large enough to allow the purchase 
of these things at a wholesale store, and so arranged 
as to temperature, dryness, light and ventilation as to 
keep them in perfect condition is a saving so great 
as to astonish one who trys the method for the first 
time. Often the difference amounts to twenty per cent. 

Sugar should be bought by the hundred weight at 
least, flour by the barrel, canned goods by the dozen 
or better by the case, cereals by the dozen packages 
after the fresh fall supply is in, vanilla by the quart 
(at the drug store to secure better quality), baking 
powder by the 5-pound box from which smaller quan- 
tities are transferred as needed to the box in use, soap 
by the box, that it may have a chance to dry out thor- 
oughly and so waste less readily, and so on through 
a long list. For a very small family the list would 
naturally be shorter. Anything that does not deteri- 



Storag* 



Quantities 



561 



1 62 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 



Irrand 
of Goods 



Adulterations 



Percentage 
in Saving 



Judgment 



orate in storage can be bought to much greater advan- 
tage in quantity. 

In groceries it is not well to bivy an inferior grade. 
Here the best is the cheapest and wisest, especially in 
these days of intense competition dnd fraud. It is well 
to know a good brand and insist upon having it. For- 
eign labels are not a surety of a good grade of goods, 
in fact some of our best American firms put up their 
best quality of spices, for instance, under their own 
name and the poorer grades are labeled with French 
labels and sold to firms that deal in a cheaper line of 
goods. 

Through the reports of the Government upon adul- 
teration as given in the Bulletins and the report of 
different state and city inspectors one may ascertain 
to some extent which are reliable and which are not. 

CONCLUSION 

The household manager should learn to think in 
percentages. One cent less on a ten cent article seems 
a trivial saving, yet it is ten per cent — ten dollars in 
every hundred. It is fair to state that there will be a 
difference in money paid of from ten to twenty per 
cent between careless and careful purchases. 

It should be remembered that the customer who 
knozvs and is particular receives the best of goods and 
services. 

The successful business man is an expert in judging 
the materials in which he deals ; he is perfectly familiar 
with the range of prices and quick to take advantage 



562 



DRY GROCERIES 163 

of all favorable conditions. The household manager 
needs to be just as familiar with all the goods which 
relate to the home and with their prices. 

One becomes an expert only through experience, but The Expert 

^ . J HousenoiQ 

experience is not gained simply by ordermg goods; Manager 
appearance must be noted carefully and results com- 
pared intelligently to acquire the trained eye and the 
trained judj^ment necessary to the successful house- 
hold manager. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Art of Right Living ($0.50), Ellen H. Richards. 

Cost of Living ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards. 

Cost of Food ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards. 

Domestic Service ($2.00), Lucy M. Salmon. 

Economic Fmiction of Woman ($0.15), E. T. Divine. 

Family Living on $500 a Year ($1.25), J. Corson. 

Home Economics ($1.50), Maria Parloa. 

Household Economics ($1.50), Helen Campbell. 

The Woman Who Spends ($1.00), B. J. Richardson. 

Toilers in the Home ($1.50), Lillian Pettengill. 

Woman and Economics ($1.50), Charlotte Perkins Oilman. 

Woman's Share in Primitive Culture (•''^175), Otis T. Mason. 

IT. S. Government Bulletins 

Farmer's Bulletin, No. ij2, The Nutritive and Economic Value 

of Food (Free). 
Farmer's Bulletin, No. 183, Meat on the Farm. 
Reprint Year Book 1902, The Cost of Food as Related to its 

Nutritive Value (Free). 
Office of Experiment Stations, No. 129, Dietary Studies in 

Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia and Chicago (10 cents, 

coin). 
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 391, Economical Use of Meats in the 

Home (Free) 



563 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

PART III 



Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the 
first sheet of the test. Use a lig"ht grade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between an- 
swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before 
answering- the questions. Answer fully. 



1. What factors combine to make meat suitable for 

the table? 

2. (a) By what should one be governed in select- 

ing a cut of beef? (b) What cuts have you 
found especially satisfactory? 

3. How is a side of beef cut up in your own mar- 

ket? What are the prices? 

4. Describe the "bottom round," stating its location 

in the animal, quality, suitable uses, approxi- 
mate value, etc. 

5. Compare with "top round." 

6. Compare a cut from the brisket with the flank 

cut. 

7. What cuts of beef have you never used? 

8. Have you any especially satisfactory methods of 

preparing cheap cuts, other than noted in these 
books ? 

9. Describe a desirable piece of salt pork. 



564 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

10. A satisfactory fowl to roast. 

11. A satisfactory roast of pork. 

12. The best cut of steak. 

13. French lamb chops. 

14. What objections are there to canned meats? 

15. Compare fish with meat as a food. 

16. Make a table giving the season and prices of 

vegetables to be obtained in your local market 
similar to that on page 137. 

17. State objections for excessive use of vegetables 

out of season. 

18. What answer would you give a mother who 

states that her children like no vegetables ex- 
cept canned tomato, preferring it to the fresh 
fruit even in season, and asks if there is any 
harm in letting them have it exclusively, every 
meal? 

19. Have you tried buying any groceries in quantity : 

If so, with what success in price, quality, and 
keeping ? 

20. What purchases do you find hardest to make? 

Why? 

21. Can you add any suggestions or comments to 

help others? 

22. Are there any questions you would like to ask 

relating to Household Management? 

Note. — After completing this test, sign your full name. 



565 



SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR 
CLASS STUDY ON 

HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

By Bertha M. Terrill, A. B. 

MEETING I 
Place of Home and Home-maker in the Economic "World. 

(Study pages 1-8.) 
1. Economic Function of Woman, Divine. ($0.15, postage 
2c.) 
Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
Standards of Living, Chapters I and II. 
Household Expenditures, Chapter I. 

3. The Standard of Life, Bosanquet. (1.50, out of print.) 

Chapter I. 

4. Household Economics, Helen Campbell. ($1.50, postage 

16c.) Household Industries, Chapter VII. 

5. See works on Political Economics on place of Consump- 

tion in discussion of Wealth. 

MEETING II 

(Study pages 9-41.) 
Division of Incomes. 

1. The Woman Who Spends, Bertha J. Richardson. ($1.00, 

postage 10c.) 
Chapters on Needs, Choices, Imitation versus Inde- 
pendence, Satisfaction, Responsibility. 

2. Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 8c.) 
Housing, Chapter IV. 

Operating Expenses, Chapter V. 

Food, Chapter VI. 

Clothing, 

Higher Life. 
S. Cost of Shelter, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
4^ Cost of Food, Ellen Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.) 

See articles on "Increase in Household Expenses." Har- 
per's Bazar, Sept. -Dec, 190G. 



566 



HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

MEETING III 

(Study pages 42-68.) 

(a) Household Accounts. 

(a) Value — Worth the time and effort? 

(b) Different Methods. 

(e) Discussion of Personal Choices. 
Reference— How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell. 
($1.00, postage 10c.) 

(b) Banking. 

(a) Use to housewife; opinion of members. 

(b) Varieties of Banks. Local Banks. 

(c) IIow made most useful? 

Reference— How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell. 

($1.00, postage 10c.) 
See article on Finance, by Dr. Campbell, in Cosmopolitan 

Magazine. 
(Select answers to test questions on Part I.) 

MEETING IV 

(Study pages 71-96.) 

(a) Organization in the Home. 

1. Household Economics, Chapter XII. Campbell. 

2. Cost of Living, Chapter IX. Richards. ($1.00, postage 

10c.) 

3. Cosmopolitan Magazine — April, May and June, 1899. 

4. "The Eight Hour Day in Housekeeping." American 

Kitchen Magazine, Article in January, February 
and March, 1902. 
See Supplement, pages 181-191. 

(b) Domestic Service. 

1. Domestic Service, Salmon. ($2.00, postage 18c.) 

2. Household Economics, Chapter XI, Camgbell. ($1.50, 

postage 16c.) 



567 



PROGRAM 

MEETING V 

(Study pages 97-125.) 
Buying Supplies. 

(a) Bargains — real and fictitious. 
(I)) Grades — best, the cheapest? 

(c) Comparison of Department and Specialty Stores. 

(d) Seasons for buying supplies. 

(e) Buying in quantity. 

(f) Local stores. 

(Select answers to test questions on Part II.) 

MEETING VI 

(Study pages 127-163.) 
Marketing. 

(a) Meats — Local cuts. 

(b) Vegetables. 

(c) Groceries. Get estimates in quantity from whole- 

sale store. 

(d) Comparison of local markets in sanitary conditions 

and practices, cold storage facilities, cuts of meat, 

prices, etc. 
Reference — Home Economics. Chapter on Marketing. Maria 

Parloa. ($1.50, postage IGc.) 
(Select answers to test questions on Part III,) 



568 



SUPPLEMENT 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

By Bertha M. Terrill, A. B. 

A rare opportunity is afforded us, through these 
correspondence courses, of sharing the experiences oi 
many different housekeepers of widely differing loca- 
ations and conditions. Through this supplement I 
am glad to have the opportunity of passing on the 
most valuable contributions, and I anticipate that they 
will amplify helpfully the material of the text. 

DIFFERING OPINIONS 

In some points there has seemed to be universal 
agreement. In others, there have been flatest contra- 
dictions of opinions, amusingly so, sometimes, if one 
could forget the trials and struggles involved. One, 
for instance, affirms with much positiveness that help 
by the hour, in place of resident labor, is entirely im- 
possible. "How can shop and store hours be com- 
pared with those in a house, or the work be re- 
adjusted to conform to such a plan? Hasn't the prob- 
lem two sides? Is it unreasonable of me to desire a 
late dinner when we are hurried at breakfast, irregu- 
lar for luncheon, and dinner at night is the only meal 
the family may take together and enjoy leisurely?'* 
The next paper taken up assured me, no less posi- 
tively, that the plan is admirable, the writer has tried 

167 



569 



i68 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

it and finds it a great relief and no more expensive, all 
things considered. 

LAUNDRY WORK 

■The question of laundry work, done in the house 
or sent out, brought forth as contradictory views, al- 
though such conclusions could easily be derived as 
that all would find it a relief to send laundry work out 
if it could be done as well, under as sanitary condi- 
tions, and no more expensively. (Not many seemed 
to have much .idea of the actual difference in expense.) 
It was easy to sr<^, also, that in practically no com- 
munity thus far reported from, are there satisfactory 
laundries, and prices are reported as too high to be 
tolerated. Where are the clubs ready to devote some 
of their time and attention to the solution of this 
problem for their communities? One has done so, 
very satisfactorily. 

These differences of opinion spring largely from the 
great differences in local conditions and in personal 
experiences, yet they emphasize the fact that each 
home has its own peculiar problems to be worked out, 
and the most that can be hoped for from suggestion 
from without is the laying of fundamental principles, 
together with opportunity of studying the experience 
of others as a guide in deciding our own course of 
action. 

DIVISION OF INCOME 

There is less material contributed on Household 
Accounts than 1 could wish, less, I hope, than may 



570 



DIVISION OF INCOME 169 

be in a few years, if all the housekeepers who have 
registered resolves to know more of this side of their 
business in future, live up to their intention. Evi- 
dently one in fifty would be a generous estimate of 
those who keep anything bordering upon helpful ac- 
counts at present, even among our students. 

Fortunately some have been keeping careful rec- 
ords and the papers of such have been full of in- 
terest. They show that the budgets given in the text 
are fair — both the actual and the ideal, for some 
rarely wise, able women are finding the ideal budget 
possible today and are living close to its standard. 

I w^ish it were possible to present every detail of 
the management of such, that "he who runs may read'' 
their valuable lessons. There is no evidence of un- 
worthy curtailment. One catches, on the contrary; , 
the spirit of highest, worthiest enjoyments and con- 
tentment. 

Here is one in a city of an Eastern state, where 
husband and wife without children have an income of 
$1,200 in yearly salary, paid monthly, 

MONTHLY BUDGET, FAMILY OF TWO 

OUTGO. 

Rent $16.00 

For 3 rooms and bath on 2nd floor, with 

storage and cellar privileges. Low for 

location. 

Car fares $3-50 

Food $22.50 

Average per year not over $15.00. 

Operating expenses $6.50 

Gas, light and heat, average 3.50 



571 



\yo iions/'.noi n min-K^IiMunt 

Liiinulry • ■ 1.50 

(^leaiiinK» 2 half dayn i.^o 

Life Insurance 7.00 

Invcshiicnt 10.00 

rcrsonal allowances 30.00 

Inciflciil.ils 4.50 

'I ol.il .$100. 00 

P^acli is ;ill«)\vt<l ."j^i^.o^) foi- clolliiii;.^, }-;ifls, cliarily, 
lii^;lici" life .iiid personal saving;'. 

A pliysiciaiTs lainily of four in Sonllicrn California 
vvilli inconic of $1,500, sptiid for rcnl 10 \n-v cvnt, 
opcralinL; expenses i^i, \)v\ (cnl, lood J5 \)vv cent, 
(lolhinj^ 15 per cenl, and Inidier life 17 per cent, 
while a laniily ol l(»ni in Montana willi llie same in- 
come {$1,500) rent a i;ood si/ed lionse vvilli yard 
lar^e enon,i;Ii lor kilclien jvarden and small |)onItrv 

yard foi- $iS a 1 lli, oi- i.| j 5 per cenl, and si)end 

'for operalin^ expenses 15 per cenl, food jo per cent, 
clolliin^- iS \)vv cenl and liijL;li(.i" \\U- j^i) \k'1 cent. 

'riiese llnce are inlerestinq* taken toi^ctlicr, as sIkjw- 
lu^ some conditions \\ln(li lie praclicall\' hevond in- 
dividnal conliol, \cl wliicli may have decided ellect 
nj)on the ri'snlt. The opeialinL; expenses in the physi- 
cian's faniil\', lor instance, have lo cover olllce icnlal. 
care, lij^htinj;, healing, telephone, etc., which is 
in reality not a part of tlu' honsehold expenses. ( un- 
Irasl als(» tiie accommodations possihK' in the h'ast- 
ern city at $i^ rent per nioiilh, and that very low 
lor the |>laci', and those a\ailahle in Montana for a 
similar price. 



572 



DIVISION OF INCOME 171 

It has long been observed that salaries and wages 
do not vary in diflercnt localities in any way com- 
mensurate with the great difTerencc in living expenses. 

In Washington, D, C, a family of husband, wife 
and four children, aged 6 to 16 years, with income 
of $1,500, spend for rent $360, operating expenses 
$80 to $90, food $400, clothing $350, with balance 
of $300 for higher life. 

MONTHLY DIVISION OF $125 

Rent $25 

P'ood 30 

Fuel and (Jas 10 

Clotliing . 10 

Laundry 5 

Furniture 10 

Higher Life 10 

Bank Account 25 

''Three members of the family who are not at 
home during midday take lunch consisting of buttered 
toast or bread and preserves that I had put uj) fhir- 
ing the summer. We do not use cereal at every 
breakfast nor do we have dessert after every clinner, 
but about four times a week. I have used tomatoes 
rather frequently, although they are high in price, 
but we enjoy them and prefer them to something else 
costing less. I 'can' my own fruit which can be used 
in many ways as a dessert. 

"Out of $30 1 spend $io for such jjhj visions as 
sugar, tea, coffee, butter, flour, meal, lard, yeast, 
powder, salt, pei)per, cereals, starch, blue, soap, etc. 



573 



172 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

This gives $20 for meats and vegetables and the 
family is thus maintained on $5 a week. 

"My son makes all fires and goes errands, cleans 
front and back yard. My daughter arranges the 
table, airs bed rooms and puts them in order before 
going to school. Once a week my laundress scrubs 
kitchen and cleans vestibule, front porch and batii 
room. I superintend the cooking and house in gen- 
eral. My husband frequently aids in marketing." 

MENU FOR A WEEK 

Sunday 

(Breakfast) 

Fruit — Oranges (Two cut in half) 

Sliced 11am (broiled) Scrambled Eggs (two) 

Hot corn bread (two eggs) 

Coffee (with cream ) 

(Dinner) 

Roast of Beef 

Mashed potatoes Cream of asparagus on toast, 

Bread — with butter. Lettuce Salad. 

Rice pudding. 

Monday 

(Breakfast) 

Cream of Wheat. 

Scrapple (fried crisp) 

Hot Biscuits. Sliced Tomatoes. 

Coffee. 
(Dinner) 
Sliced l)eef heated in meat sauce. 

Boiled Onions Cream Sauce (a la cream) 

Rice. Celery Salad (celery, eggs, spring onions and parsley) 

Bread. Tea. 

Tuesday 

(Breakfast) 

Oat Meal. 

Bacon. Kgg Omelet (with parsley) 

Wheat Muffins. Coffee. 



574 



DIVISION OF INCOME 173 

(Dinner) 

Clear Soup. 

Brown Hash. Beauregard Eggs on toast. 

Sliced Oranges and bananas with cocoanut. 

Wednesday 

(Breakfast) 

Sausage Corn Muffins, with butter. 

Poached Eggs. Coffee. 

(Dinner) 

Ham (Boiled) Spinach with Egg (hard cooked). 

Bread. 

Sweet Potatoes Delmonico (potatoes and cheese) 
Prunes. Tea or Cocoa. 

Thursday 
(Breakfast) 
Cream of Wheat with bananas and milk. 
Frizeled Beef. Toast (buttered) 

Sliced Tomatoes. 
(Dinner) 
Soup. (Vegetable). 
Ham Croquettes with Tomato Sauce. 

Macaroni with Cheese. 

Pickle. Bread. Celery Salad. 

Canned Peaches (Home Made.) 

Friday 

(Breakfast) 

Cream of Salmon. Potato Chips. 

Hot Biscuits. Coffee. 

(Dinner) 

Baked Shad, or Trout. Mashed Potatoes. 

Sliced Tomatoes with Salad Dressing. 

Corn Bread. Tea. 

Saturday 

(Breakfast) 

Mush with milk. 

Bacon. Scrambled Eggs. Potato Chips. 

Plain Bread or Toast. Coffee. 

(Dinner) 

Sliced Ham. Creamed Cabbage. 

Boiled Potatoes. Bread. 

Apple Sauce. Tea. 



575 



1/4 HOUSEHOLD MAXAGEMENT 

DIVISION OF $4,5oo 

Family in Providence, R. L, physician, wife, two 
children, two maids, laundress one and a half days a 
week: 

Rent, 10 per cent $4 50. 

Food. 14 per cent 6 30 

Operating expenses. 20 per cent.... Q 00 

Clothing. 9 per cent .^405 

hicidentals, 2 per cent 90 

Office Expense, 25 per cent 112$ 

Higher Life, savings, etc.. 20 per cent 9 00 

Total $45 00 

DETAILS CF OrERATING EXPENSES. 

Services (including wages of 2 
maids, laundry, ashes removed, 
snow shoveled, rugs beaten, win- 
dows washed, etc "* $5 50 

Fuel I 30 

Lighting 60 

Telephone 64 

Water tax 16 

Ice . . . • • 20 

Household Supplies 60 

Total $9 00 

She says: "Nothing is more helpful to the practice 
of economy than a record from year to year of all 
expenditures. I have been a more successful house- 
keeper since I began keeping careful accounts. I have 
reduced my monthly food bill from $60 to $50 and less 
since I oflfered my cook 10 per cent on what we 
saved each month." 



576 



DIVISION OF INCOME 173 

FOOD ECONOMY 

The practice of wise economies has been so success- 
ful anrT gratifying in one family of my acquaintance 
within the past few years that I must share some of 
the details with those interested. 

The mother has succeeded in saving enough in four 
years to take herself and son on a European trip as a 
supplement to his education. The family live in the 
middle West and consist of three ladies and a boy of 
eighteen. 

The mother writes : 'T am ahiiost ashamed to 
mention the small sum we live on. It is by saving all 
left-ov«^rs, and by the exercise of quite a little fore- 
thought and some self-denial that it is accomplished. 
I do not mean to practice economy at the expense of 
health, however." The daily average for each person 
for the year for good material was 12 ^-5 cents one 
year, 86 4-5 cents a week, another, 85 1-6 cents. 

A small garden, cared for on shares, aided some- 
what, although not largely. It supplied apples and 
pears in season and for preserving and a part of the 
summer vegetables and potatoes. 

Sample menus with the hints accompanying them 
will b'j; as suggestive as anything could be, to show 
the methods of economy. 

On A. basis of 85 to 90 cents per person a week : 

Wifier — Breakfast, 6 130 a. m. 

Oatmeal with cream and sugar. 
Bread of Franklin mills and Pillsbury flours mixed. 



77 



J7fc HOUSLllOLU MANAGEMENT 

Muffins or pancakes. 

Butter. 

Postiim with 1-3 hot skimmed milk. 

Jflly or fruit syrup. 

In summer various wheat cereals are used, as Ral- 

ston's Breakfast Food, Cream of Wheat and the like. 

Jn the si)rin,i;- toast and e<^j.;s cjccasionally. 

I )iiiii( r I J 111. 

1. Sliillcd h((l's heart. 

Stewed onions. Mashed potatoes. 

Spiced pears. 

Ivnlire wheal hitad and Ijiitter. 

Gelatine dessert with whipped cream. 

2. Remains of heef's heart warmed. 

("reamed turnips. 

J'ried mashed potatoes. Green tomato |)i(dvles. 

Kice with hiilter and sugar. 

Not more than two he.irts are serve<l in a year. 
They are exeellenl for variety, hut not desirahle too 
rjften. A variety uf meats and vegetahles is given. In 
a three weeks' menu a chi("ken appears, serving tw(3 
meals, roast porlv, imillon (■hoi)S, oysters, Ilamhurg 
steak, creanie*! (hied heef, cod fish, salmon with 
white sauce, heef steak and hoiU-(I h.ini. The meat 
from soiip hones is used in a pii' or seasone(l well and 
serve(l on loast. 'i\vo turkeys are served in a season. 
A good roast once a month and steal-, or chops once 
a week. 

(Jccasionall)' a hiscpie or other sonj) is served wdien 



578 



FOOD ECONOMY 177 

the materials are at hand, but, as a rule, the soup 
'.'ourse is omitted with meats, being reserved for days 
when fish or lighter courses are served. 

There is never a spoonful of anything wasted. A 
cupful of corn left from one dinner is scalloped for 
the next. A little tomato may be added to it for a 
change. Spoonfuls of fruit left from suppers are 
made into dumplings for dessert. Pies are seldom 
served. Hickory nuts and dates are a favorite dessert. 
Tomatoes are home-canned. Lima beans are used oc- 
casionally as one vegetable. 

When spring comes and eggs are plentiful omelettes 
are used, milk and agg puddings and custards. 

Supper — 5 p. m. 

Bread and butter. 
Buns, cinnamon rolls, etc., cookies, gingersnaps or 

cake. 

Fruit. Cheese. 

Peanut butter or a little cold meat. Sometimes milk 

toast, warmed potatoes or macaroni. 

If for guests, pressed veal, scalloped oysters with 
olives and jelly in addition. 

A great variety of fruits is used. All varieties arc 
preserved. In summer and fall fruit is a frequent 
dessert. 

We are all more or less familiar with the enforced 
economies of life, but this is an example of voluntary 
curtailing for a larger good, without harm. Would that 
more homes could catch the spirit of this housekeeper 



579 



178 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

who writes : ''There are so many things I rather 
spend money for than for food I" 

In a study of present standards of Hfe as interpreted 
through facts in regard to food (Report of Lake 
Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1902) some 
things are emphasized which many housekeepers are 
ignoring, wilfully or otherwise, and which affect the 
cost of living seriously as well as the comfort and 
health of the family. 

The data was gathered from homes in which the 
wage-earners were professional men. Wherever sev- 
eral maids were employed the increase in expense of 
food is disproportionately large. A family of three 
is instanced. 

With three employes, cook, waitress and companion, 
with income of $3,400, 26.5 per cent is spent for food. 
In contrast, a family of the same size with $100 less 
income, that employs a nurse maid and one general 
helper, spends only 13.9 per cent for food. In the 
first case much of the ordering and preparation of the 
food is left to employes ; in the latter the housekeeper 
attends to the ordering and plans the meals herself. 

The menus submitted at that time show a surprising 
lack of variety and an ignorance of simple, inexpensive 
foods that can be used interchangeably. ''Soups were 
very little used. Cheaper cuts of meat almost invari- 
ably took the form of stews. In no case were lentils 
or peas substituted for beans. Fish, which is one of 
the less expensive and most digestible foods, was 



580 



FOOD ECONOMY 17$ 

used sparingly. Macaroni, spaghetti, rice, hominy and 
other cereals were almost never substituted for pota- 
toes. The possibilities of cheese seemed quite unex- 
plored. There was very little variety in vegetables in 
spite of the fact that in almost every case the families 
lived in large cities where the markets were bewil- 
deringly rich with a great variety." 

These facts are but further evidence of the mis- 
conception in these days on the part of many, of the 
duties of the housekeeper. What greater duty can 
she have than looking after her share of the business 
engagement entered into when she assumed the re- 
sponsibilities of a home and pledged herself to faith- 
fulness in her part? 

These duties are worthy of, yes, require, if properly 
attended to, the mental ability and intelligent care and 
interest of the trained, skillful women who assume 
them, and it is a pity that so many homes are being 
wrecked and others falling far short of their finest 
possibilities because of such neglect. I sometimes try 
to picture the outcry there would be if the wage- 
earners in our homes were equally lax in their respon- 
sibilities of providing ! And yet, as I have tried to 
point out in the text, care in the consumption is as 
important in the home-finance as is providing, and 
the difference in comfort is greater, proportionately. 

What is to start a great wave of pride over our 
land that shall stir every home-maker who is at pres- 
ent indifferent to, or ignorant of these great facts, 



581 



i8o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

with an ambition to prove her right to her position 
and make her a wortliy partner in her home-world, 
not a mere enjoyer of another's strenuous labor! 

I know protest will at once arise in the form of such 
questions as "Where is the overworked home-maker 
to find time to do any more?" "What if the hus- 
bands prefer to hire help that their wives may have 
freer, happier lives?" "What can women do wdio 
haven't strength to assume such duties?" 

If you ask, I must answer frankly, that the noble 
home-makers whom I look upon with unbounded re- 
spect, and whose homes and lives are a constant uplift 
to all who know them, never seem to have difficulty in 
adjusting these matters. Do w^e not all know, in 
reality, that time is ours, after all, to spend as we 
choose to spend it. We may have fallen into the poor 
method, have followed the way of all about us until 
it seems imperative to spend it all as we do, but if 
wx looked at these matters as really serious we should 
find adjustment some way. Health and strength arc 
so largely in our keeping, also ! Confusion of too 
many outside interests, over excitement, lack of well- 
ordered, systematic living are depriving many a woman 
of the life rightfully hers. Lack of sufficient healthful 
exercise does the same for others. How few seem to 
understand it ! At least the results would seem to 
indicate it. 



582 



DOMESTIC SERVICE i8i 

DOMESTIC SERVICE 

And now wc come to the perplexing, annoying 
problems of Domestic Service ! We wish we had some 
effective solutions to offer! Some women, in dis- 
cussing the condition, have contributed valuable hints 
regarding successful methods employed which, if not 
wholly new, might well be reconsidered by many an 
employer. 

Hugo Miinsterberg, contrasting conditions in Amer- 
ica and Germany, writes: 'The conviction of every 
American girl that it is dignified to work in a mill, 
but undignified to be a cook in any other family, would 
never have reached its present intensity if an anti- 
domestic feeling were not in the background. If we 
seek for the most striking features of woman's work 
here and abroad, it would seem that the aim of the 
Geiman woman is to further the interests of the house- 
hold and the American to escape from the household." 

It is a striking fact that in almost every instance 
the students who have written on the subject place the 
lion's share of the fault with the employer. What 
inference shall we draw? It reminds us of a School 
of Housekeeping which was started to train employes, 
but after a two years' study of conditions it was 
changed to a course for employers in recognition of 
the fact that they, first, needed training. 

I quote below from a few of the papers : 

''All who have help do not need it, many can ill 
afford it. Some time ago I heard the eldest daughter 



583 



i82 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

of a family of five girls urging her mother to get a 
servant since they were now in a large house. The 
mother asked what a servant would do in a family 
of so many girls. In reply the girl said, 'we shan't 
be considered anybody if we don't have a servant.' 

''It is in a spirit like this that much of the trouble 
lies. When women are willing themselves to learn 
the art of good housekeeping and are willing to do a 
part of it, no matter how small the share, to show the 
interest, and then by kindness, gentleness and thought- 
fulness seek to help the servants along in the world, 
the situation will be greatly improved." 

It is the women with this spirit and attitude who 
are having least trouble. 

"I always employ intelligent help and do by them 
as I wish to be done by. When a young girl is intel- 
ligent one has- splendid material to work with in train- 
ing her to do as you would your own daughter. 

'T have had help, who, after leaving my home when 
I needed help no longer, would return at odd times 
for a half day when they thought I stood in need 
and offer to give me their time without pay, wishing 
thus to show their appreciation of my kindness toward 
them. I believe my success is due to consideration 
and thoughtfulness of their little fancies. 

"Thoughtfulness goes a great way in winning the 
love of one's help. When I do my shopping I always 
remember my help as any other member of my family, 
not with the thought of being repaid in services, but 
through kindness. I have no patience with the person 



584 



DOMESTIC SERVICE 183 

who does another a kindness merely to gain some 
selfish point." 

One woman attributes her success to personal at- 
tachment and a consequent desire to please. She 
says : 

"So few have any idea of how to buy clothes or get 
any value for their money that I made it a point to 
show them how they could have good clothes inside 
and out instead of the showy things they were hav- 
ing. They appreciated the interest I took in them. 
I think that women who employ are themselves largely 
responsible for the conditions of domestic affairs. 
Reprimanding before others, constant nagging and 
giving few liberties are the methods of many." 

"Most women in service change in the hope of 'bet- 
tering' themselves, which is laudable but often disap- 
pointing. It would seem profitable for employers to 
devise a scheme of increasing wages at stated inter- 
vals until a certain point is reached, after that a sum 
as yearly reward for continued service. I knew a 
family where some such plan has been followed for 
a number of years with great success. The lack of 
promotion in household service must be deadening to 
ambition." 

An Iowa student writes : 

"My observation has been that well ordered house- 
holds and households where the servants know just 
what they must do and be held responsible for, have 
been more successful even though the work was more 



585 



i84 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

arduous than homcG where there was no system, the 
mistress capricious and all sorts of personal service 
was required. I believe that when housekeeping be- 
comes a business, women will have trusted and valued 
employes as do their husbands." 

HELP BY THE HOUR 

Here is an interesting experience of help by the 
hour contributed by the Director of the School. "After 
our raw boned, unprepossessing, though faithful Irish 
girl married a German with four children (to her 
subsequent regret) we had the usual string of unsatis- 
factory maids, so we decided to try help by the hour 
as recommended in Household Management. The fol- 
lowing *ad' was put into an evening paper : 

"Wanted — A helper for light housework from 8 
to 12 every morning. No washing. Pay $4.50 a week. 
Extra pay for extra time. 

"We expected to have only a few applicants, but 
that same evening, which was cold and rainy, ten ap- 
l)lied and during the next two days the number was 
raised to over fifty. The first applicant was accepted 
and while she proved fairly satisfactory, some of the 
others who applied looked more promising. After 
about two months wc put in another advertisement 
asking for service from 7:30 to 12:00; pay, $4.00 a 
week. This time we had forty applicants. After 
about six months we advertised again, making the 
hours from 7:30 to 12:30, pay $3.50 per week. This 
third time wc had about ihirty applicants. Under the 



586 



HELP BY THE HOUR 185 

last conditions the rate of pay comes down to 10 cents 
an hour. 

"This experience would seem to prove conclusively 
that, in Chicago at least, there is no lack of women 
willing to do housework, while it is almost impossible 
to obtain a satisfactory servant at $5.00 a week. Over 
120 women in our locality were anxious for practically 
the same employment under different conditions. 

"The arrangement was not satisfactory as to hours, 
so we made the arrangement with the present helper to 
come at 8 o'clock and stay until 11 and come again 
from 4 :30 to 7 :30 p. m. every week day, and on" Sun- 
day from 10 until 2 o'clock. This makes forty hours 
per week regularly, the rate of pay being as before, 
10 cents per hour. The w^orker lives within a ten- 
minute walk. 

"We have a laundress one day a week who does 
the washing and makes a start on the ironing, which 
the helper finishes during the week. She receives 
$1.50 for nine hours' work. 

"Breakfast is a simple meal with us. When we 
have cooked cereal it is cooked the night before. 
Fruit, eggs or bacon, cofifee and toast complete the 
meal, which is easily prepared in less than half an 
hour. 

"Breakfast is finished when the helper arrives in 
the morning. She makes the beds, dusts the floors 
and cleans the bath room. Then clears ofif the break- 
fast dishes, washes them and straightens the kitchen 



587 



i86 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

and dining room and is ready for the ironing or for 
any special cleaning. She leaves the table set for 
lunch and goes home to her own lunch. In the after- 
noon the helper washes up the luncheon dishes which 
have been rinsed and left in the kitchen ; prepares 
dinner and serves it at 6:15. She usually gets the 
dinner dishes washed and leaves the table set for 
breakfast by 7 130, but sometimes has to stay half an 
hour extra if dinner is late. 

''When we wish to go out in the evening we have 
to leave someone with the children, so the helper is 
kept until we return, or if especially late, she stays 
all night for 25 cents extra. The extra time runs from 
nothing to $1.00 a week, according to circumstances. 

''Our experience has been that this is a much less 
expensive arrangement than paying a maid, who sleeps 
and eats in the house and does the laundry work, $5.00 
a week. The helper has no meals in our house unless 
she stays over time, in which case 10 cents is deducted 
for the food and time spent. 

"According to the prize schedules published in the 
department of 'The Housekeeper and Her Helper' in 
the Ladies' Home Journal for September, '06, in a 
one-servant household the working time of the maid 
was about 70 hours per week — a fair average. This 
allows for two afternoons a week off and the even- 
ings after the evening meal is cleared away but does 
not take into account the time spent by the maid in 
eating her own meals. This might fairly be reckoned 



588 



HELP BY THE HOUR 187 

at seven hours a week, leaving a balance of 63 hours 
spent in actual work. In most households the food 
which the maid consumes could not be reckoned at less 
than 30 cents a day or say $2.00 a week. If the maid 
receives $5.00 or even $4.50 a week in wages, it is ap- 
parent that her services cost over 10 cents an hour 
for the time actually spent in work, allowing nothing 
for the rent of her room and extra supplies and waste. 

"Our experience has been that food bills are a third 
less ($10 to $12 per month) than when we had a resi- 
dent maid. This is accounted for in part from the 
bills have averaged $1 a month less than before. Then 
we have the use of the room which the maid would 
occupy and do use it. The proportional rental for the 
room might be reckoned at $4 or $5 per month. 

"With our family of five — two children and a baby 
— housekeeping is a much more difficult problem than 
in the average household. We live in a heated seven- 
room apartment, hot water and janitor service fur- 
nished. In summer the washing is appalling and 
sometimes the flat work is sent to the laundry. It 
seems as if double the amount of cleaning were neces- 
sary in a soft coal city like Chicago compared with that 
in a suburb of Boston. Certainly a third more clean- 
ing is required. 

**Our experience has been that those who apply 
for work are much more intelligent as a class than the 
general run of servants and that they work very much 
more rapidly and efficiently. More careful planning 



589 



i88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

and more forethought is necessary than with 'all the 
time' help. The feeling of relief comes, however, be- 
cause we know, and our helper knows, that plenty 
others to fill her place can be found if she is not satis- 
fied with the work, or if she does not come up to our 
requirements. So far as our family is concerned we 
feel that the servant problem has been solved." 

SYSTEMS OF WORK 

Two systems of work for the week have seemed 
especially suggestive. In the first the housekeeper 
does her own work. I am particularly impressed with 
the wisdom of the plan for Monday. It is always 
harder to have washing come on Monday than on any 
other day. It is simply a long-honored custom. We 
need to break away from such if they are not sensible. 
Extra cleaning is needed Monday when none is done 
on Sunday. 

SCHEDULE 

Monday — Pick-up day after Sunday. Brush Sunday clotKes 
and put away. Clean bath room and put clothes to soak 
for washing. 

Tuesday — Washing and cleaning kitchen. 

JVcdnesday — Ironing, and arranging clothes to be mended. 

Thursday — Clean bed rooms and hall. Sew or mend. 

Friday — Clean sitting room, parlor and dining room. P>ake 
bread. 

Saturday — Clean kitchen, lamps. Cooking. 

Most households consist of several departments. In 
this there arc two maids and a laundress once a week. 
The duties of the housemaid are : Every day (if win- 
ter), close ventilators, see that registers are open. Get 



590 



SYSTEMS OF IVORK 189 

dining room ready for breakfast, taking out to kitchen 
dishes needing to be heated. If summer, open win- 
dows, arrange Hving room. Serve breakfast. Clear 
table, leaving dishes rinsed and prepared to be washed. 
The bed rooms, which have been left ready, bed 
clothes, airing and windows opened by occupants are 
put in order. Breakfast dishes washed. 

SCHEDULE 

Monday Morning — Two of the bedrooms are swept and 

"thorough cleaned." 
Tuesday Morning — This maid irons the table line, small pieces, 

napkins, doileys from her own choice. 
Wednesday Morning — Bathroom and another bedroom 

"thorough cleaned." 
Thursday — Silver cleaned. 
Friday — Drawing room. 
Saturday — Library and dining room and hall. 

"Luncheon served at i, dinner at 6. Each girl has 
every other evening. Each has an afternoon. We 
have dinner on Sunday at i 130, after which both maids 
have the rest of the day and evening, only on extraor- 
dinary occasions being asked to return for any sup- 
per. Then if possible, each is asked in turn. The 
housemaid is responsible for keeping the china closets 
in order and her kitchen (in other houses it would be 
'butler's pantry.') 

'The cook prepares three meals per day, breakfast 
at 7:45, luncheon at i, dinner at 6. She is responsible 
for the cleanliness and order of the kitchen, the ad- 
joining pantry and ice closet, the back porch and 
maid's water closet. She assists the laundress with 



59rl 



190 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 

the ironing. She arranges her own time for her clean- 
ing, reserving Saturday for extra baking. The fur- 
nace man cares for the furnaces, sifting also ashes 
from range and cares for walks, shoveling snow in 
winter, cutting grass in summer, also works by hour 
at washing windows, beating rugs, etc." 

VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL HOME 

''The home is the center of all that is best in life. 
It is the greatest moulder of character. All the quali- 
ties of Christian manhood and womanhood, love, rev- 
erence, unselfishness, forbearance, order, regard for 
property and for the rights of others, should find their 
beginnings here. The strength of civic and natural 
life, respect for government, honest administration of 
public trusts, depend in large degree upon the high 
ideals of the home life. Family traditions are better 
fostered. The home is the housewife's 'place of busi- 
ness.' 

"Whatever afifects the home afifects the state. The 
moral standing of a nation depends upon the home life 
of its individuals. We cannot get a true idea of the 
sacredness of life without having some place, however 
humble, where high standards of living govern the ac- 
tions of its individuals. We have poems that stir the 
emotions and quicken into activity the best interests 
on the subject of 'Home,' but what poet ever attempted 
to stir the hearts of a nation to heroic deeds by writ- 
ing a poem on the 'Boarding House.' " 



592 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK. 



TT IS the minority, not the majority of people, who 
can afford the kixury of a trained nurse, especially 
in cases of protracted and chronic illnesses. 

These lessons are intended to help those who cannot 
always command the services of a trained nurse, to 
teach how to carry out the doctor's orders, what to 
look for and observe in his absence, so that by giving 
him a definite report of what the patient's condition 
has been he may be able to work more understand- 
ingly, be able to diagnose the disease more quickly, 
be surer of how the patient is progressing, and of the 
influence the medicine ordered is having. And to 
teach above all how to handle and move patients with- 
out tiring them, how to render them comfortable, there- 
by ensuring rest of nerve and body. 

What to do in illness is purposely omitted in these 
lessons, except in very simple troubles and in cases of 
emergency. The "what to do" is for the doctor to de- 
cide, the "how to do" for the mother to know. Incal- 
culable harm is continually being done by the latter 
encroaching on the doctor's prerogative. Many a 
mother has treated .her child for supposed colic and 
only called the doctor in after some days when the 
pain has refused to yield to her treatment. In very 



Aims of 
the Lessons 



The Doctor's 
Province. 



593 



HOME CARE OP THE SICK 



What 

the Mother 

Should 

Know 



many cases the treatment has heen the worse thing 
possible for what has proved to be appendicitis, gastro- 
enteritis, or other serious abdominal trouble. 

There are few who can afford to run up the doctor's 
bill by calling him in unnecessarily. To avoid this, 
and yet not run the risk of endangering the lives of 
those entrusted to her care, especially the little chil- 
dren who cannot tell clearly where the pain is or how 
badly they feel, it is imperative that every mother 
should know how to count the pulse, take the tempera- 
ture, and be cognizant of at least a few of the primary 
symptoms of the most common diseases, especially the 
contagious ones, where the lack of early recognition 
and isolation may imperil the health or life of others. 

The following table gives the primary symptoms, 
period of incubation, and usual time required for iso- 
lation of the most common contagious diseases. The 
number of days between exposure to and the develop- 
ment of a disease is called the period of incubation. 



FIRST SYMPTOMS IN SOME OF THE MOST COMMON 

DISEASES 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 



DISEASE 



PERIOD OF 
INCUBATION 



SYMPTOMS 



Mumps Days 14-21 Swelling of the 

average 18 glands between 

ear and jaw, on 

either side or 

both. 



TIME OF 
ISOLATION 

From day when 
swelling first ap- 
pears till 10 days 
after, usually 3 
weeks. 



594 



FIRST SYMPTOMS OT DISJL4STS 



CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued) 



riSEASE 



PERIOD OF 
INCUBATION 



SYMPTOMS 



pox 



Chicken- Days 12-16 Slight fever, after 
average 14 24 hours small 
pimples appear 
on back and 
face. 



German 

Measles 



Days 6-18 
average 14 



Measles Days 9-16 
average 12 



Sm all- 
pox 



Days 9-16 
average t6 



Very slight fever, 
rash (if any) 
appears first on 
face, may only 
last a few hours. 
There may be 
headache and 
nausea. 

Sneezing, running 
from eyes and 
nose, face swol- 
len, sore throat, 
cough, f e V e r 
gradually rising, 
rash appears 
first on face and 
neck. 

« 

Chill, rapidly ris- 
ing temperature, 
intense head- 
ache, pain in 
back and legs, 
rash, small, red, 
hard pimples, 
appearing first 
on face and 
wrists. 



TIME OF 
ISOLATION 

From onset until 
last crust has 
fallen, usually 14 
days. 



From 2 days be- 
fore rash till 
symptoms are 
gone. S o m e - 
times 2 weeks. 



From first ca- 
tarrhal s y m p - 
toms until des- 
quamation ceas- 
es, usually 24 
days. 



From onset until 
last crust has 
fallen, usually 6 
weeks. 



595 



Children's 
Diseases 



HOME CARE OP THE SICK 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued) 



DISEASE 



PERIOD OF 
INCUBATION 



Scarlet- Days 1-7 
fever average 7 



TIME OF 
ISOLATION 

From appearance 
of rash till des- 
quamation has 
entirely ceased ; 
usually 6 weeks. 



Diph- 
theria 



Days 1-6 
average 6 



From onset till 
germs have en- 
t i r e 1 y disap- 
peared. 



SYMPTOMS 

Sudden vomiting, 
sometimes chill 
or convulsions, 
high tempera- 
ture, sore throat, 
tongue coated on 
edges, hright red 
in center, gener- 
al malaise, typ- 
ical rash appear- 
ing first on chest 
and shoulders. 

Especially in the 
beginning of the 
disease the tem- 
perature is not 
as high as in 
tonsillitis ; head- 
ache, nausea, 
sore throat, with 
white patches on 
the tonsils. 



As it is sometimes difficult even for the physician to dis- 
tinguish between diphtheria and tonsillitis without taking a 
culture for examination, when white patches appear on a 
child's throat it should be isolated and a doctor called in 
at once. 

DISEASES NOT CONTAGIOUS 

Colic. Give castor oil, then a few drops of pepper- 
mint in hot water (never soothing syrtip) ; keep the 
baby warm and lying on his abdomen. Gentle rubbing 
in a circular direction, and the application of hot flan- 
nels will generally relieve it. If not, a physician 



596 



FIRST SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES S 

should be notified as continued abdominal pain is a 
symptom of many serious disorders. 

Cholera Infantum. Caused by over or improper 
feeding, heat and impure air. Symptoms : Diarrhoea 
and intestinal pain, excessive thirst, but no appetite. 
Try no home remedies, seek medical aid at once. 

Intestinal Obstruction. Symptoms : Obstinate con- 
stipation, followed by vomiting and abdominal disten- 
tion ; usually not much temperature. Get medical ad- 
vice promptly, as immediate operation may be im- 
perative. 

Convulsions. Caused by indigestion, worms, difficult 
dentition, or fright. Muscular twitchings coming on 
suddenly, sometimes even during sleep. Send for the 
doctor immediately, but do not await his arrival to put 
the baby in a hot bath. Give castor oil and an enema, 
according to directions given on page 55, using, if 
the child is small, a rubber catheter for a rectal tube. 

Pneumonia. Primary symptoms: Chill followed 
by high temperature, cough, pain in chest, expectora- 
tion which gradually becomes rust colored and bloody. 
Put patient to bed and send for the doctor imme- 
diately. 

Typhoid Fever. Primary symptoms : Temperature 
rising a little higher each day, nausea, headache, pain 
in back and limbs, nose bleed, sometimes -constipation, 
sometimes diarrhoea, watery, yellow stools, abdominal 
pain. Put patient to bed and only allow liquid diet 
until the doctor comes. 



597 



6 HOME CAN I'. ()!■ I III'. SICK 

M oiiiii^itis. May dcvclo]) suddenly with c(jntinuous 
convulsions, or come on j^radually with synii)toms of 
fretfulness, restlessness, headache, voniitinf^^, and in- 
tolerance of li^ht and noise. Put patient to hed in a 
quiet, dark, well-aired room and only allow liquid 
diet till the doctor comes. 

Croup. There are two forms (jf croup — the true or 
membranous and the false or spasmodic. The former 
is always associated with diphtheria, hut since the use 
of antitoxine it has become a much rarer com])lication, 
seldom ()ccurrin<4 when antitr)xine is used. It comes 
on jij'radually. 
False Croup h\'dse cHJUp couics ou suddenly, j^enerally in the 

middle of the nij^hf; it is as a rule the result of ex- 
posure to damp and cold, excitement, or indigestion. 

The spasm is the result of the spasmodic closing of 
the glottis. Though not dangerous, it is very distress- 
in|>- and calls for immediate treatment. Relief usually 
can be obtained best by applying hot fomentations to 
the throat, inducinj>- vomiting by j:i;^ivinp;- a drink of 
tepid water and salt — a teasi)Oonful to the glass — and 
by steam inhalations. 

'JMie most effective way of j^ivin^ inhalations is with 
the croup kettle and canoi)y. The (ptickest way to im- 
provise these is to tie an umbrella to the top of the 
child's crib and over this drape two sheets, pinninic;' 
them to the sides of the bed. They must overlap 
about one inch and hanj^'" down far enouj^^h over the 
sides and back of the bed to be tucked under the mat- 



598 



DISEASES , 7 

tress. The lower third of the front space is left open 
for the admission of fresh air. Water is kept boiling 
in a kettle at the back of the bed by a gas or oil stove 




Canopy for Giving Steam Inhalations Made with a Sheet 
and Umbrella 

and a cone of cardboard or stiff paper is attached to 
the spout and inserted between the overhanging sheets 
to carry the steam over the child's head. 



599 



Minor 
Troubles 



8 HOME CARE or THE SICK 

In nearly all cases of slight indisposition, even 
diarrhoea, a cathartic such as castor oil or calomel, fol- 
lowed by salts such as Uochelle salts, magnesium sul- 




Kear Viiivv of (Jruiip Canopy Showing Stove, Kettle, and Tube 

for Steam 

])hate, or seidlitz powder, five or six hours later, to- 
gether with rest and lluid or soft diet is indicated. 
Give as little medicine as possible ivithoiit a doctor's 
order. 



600 



THE CHOICE, FURNISHING AND CARE OF THE SICK> 

ROOM 

Sunshine, pure fresh air, and freedom from noise 
and odors are the principal things to be considered in 
choosing the sick-room. When possible it is advisa- 
ble to have a room with a southern exposure. If there 
is a fireplace or grate in the room so much the better, 
as a chimney is an excellent medium for ventilation. 

Despite the fact that the sick-room at the top of 
the house gives many stairs to climb, it is better to 
have it there. It is> further removed from the noises 
of the street and house and the air is generally purer. 

Only necessary articles of furniture should be re- 
tained ; all heavy hangings, draperies, and upholstered 
furniture must be removed. Care must be taken, how- 
ever, that the room is not made too bare and unat- 
tractive. Short,, washable curtains ; clean, white linen 
covers for the tables ; a few fresh flowers will help 
to make the sick-room bright and cheerful. Flowers 
should be removed at night, the water they are in 
changed daily, and they should never be tolerated after 
they begin to fade. 

The ideal bed is iron or brass ; single or three- 
quarter width. The double bed is unadvisable, for 
owing to its width, the mattress is apt to sink in the 
middle and it is then almost impossible to keep the 
under sheets drawn tightly enough to prevent wrinkles. 
The bed should be at least twenty-five inches in 



Furnishings 



The Bed 



601 



10 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



The 
Mattress 



Lighting 



height, but if it is not, can easily be made so by plac- 
ing heavy blocks of wood under each leg. Hollows 
about two inches in depth should be made in the 
blocks to fit the ends of the legs. , Especially if the 
patient is liable to be ill long, the trouble of doing this 
is well repaid by the added convenience in lifting and 
working over the patient. 

A hair mattress is by far the best kind to have ; the 
feather one the worst. Not only is the latter too heat- 
ing, but when occupied it is almost impossible to make 
the bed properly. 

The bed should be placed far enough from the walls 
to give access on all sides, care being taken to avoid 
having the light in the patient's eyes. 

The best plan is to have the window behind the 
bed ; then more sun and light can be admitted without 
disturbing the patient. Except in certain cases, it is 
a mistake to keep the sick-room darkened. 

Besides the bed, there should be two or three chairs 
in the room ; one a comfortable arm chair with high 
back. If upholstered, it should be encased in a pretty, 
light. Washable cover. Rocking chairs should never 
be permitted in the sick-room ; when sitting in them 
one is almost sure to rock, and the motion is very 
apt to irritate the patient. 

Two tables are necessary ; on one should be kept 
writing material, where the doctor can write his orders 
and the nurse keep the record of the patient's condi- 



602 



Table 



THE SICK ROOM ii 

tion. The second table can be near the bedside to hold 
the patient's bell ; also her food-tray ; the latter must 
always be removed as soon as the meal is finished. 
Never leave empty or half empty glasses of milk, cups 
of broth, etc., standing by the patient. 

There is a bedside table — made on purpose for use Bedside 
in the sick-room — which is very convenient. The top 
extends over the bed in front of the patient ; it is ad- 
justable and has a foot piece which goes under the 
bed and keeps the table from upsetting. (See page 30.) 

Medicine bottles and all necessary utensils should 
be kept in an adjoining room, if possible. 

The floor should be swept with a soft broom cov- 
ered with cheese cloth, or other soft material which 
is free from lint. Carpets are very objectionable ; 
small rugs which can be removed and shaken daily, 
being preferable. If the carpet must remain, see that 
it is kept well dusted, and that no dust is raised while 
doing so. The best way to do this to to sweep with 
a damp broom, going over it afterwards with a damp 
cloth pinned over the broom. Do not have this too wet 
or it will injure the carpet. 

When it is necessary for the nurse to sleep in the 
room, the cot is the most convenient arrangement, as 
it is comfortable, inexpensive and can be easily re- 
moved in the day time. 

Never use a feather duster but clean, soft dust cloths 
which may be washed out every day. Except for the 



Dusting 



603 



12 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Ventilation 



Airing 



vaniisliod furniture, it is l)etter to have the (Ulster 
shghtly damp, as this will prevent scattering of the 
dust. 

The air in the sick-room must be as pure as the air 
outside. The value of fresh air as an aid to recovery 
is sadly underrated. The open fireplace is one of the 
best methods of ventilation. A current of air can be 
created in summer by placing a lamp or a candle in 
the chimney place, and in winter a wood or a coal fire. 
Next to a fireplace, an open stove gives the best means 
of ventilation. 

Window ventilation is best obtained by double win- 
dows with double sashes. The lower sash of the outer 
window is raised about two feet ; the upper sash of 
the inner window lowered about the same distance. 
The ])assage of air being thus directed upward, a di- 
rect draught upon the patient will not be produced, if 
windows and doors on the opposite side of the room 
are kept closed. Where there are single windows, the 
same eflfect can be obtained by tacking the lower end 
of a piece of cotton, about twelve inches in depth, to 
the frame of the upper sash and to the top of the win- 
dow frame ; then lower the sash about ten inches. 
When less air is desired the lower sash can be raised 
and a board fitted to the o])ening ; the air then passes 
upward between the sashes. 

In addition to this slight continuous ventilation, the 
window must be opened and the entire air of the sick- 
roon) changed at least twice a day. In doing this, be 



604 



CARE OF THE PATIENT 



13 



careful that there is no draught and that the patient 
has extra blankets. If there is no screen at hand, a 
large umbrella will prove quite effective in protecting 
the patient's head from the direct current of air. If 
it is necessary to warm the air before it enters the 
patient's room, the window in an adjoining, well-heat- 
ed room may be opened, the door between the rooms 
being left slightly ajar. The corridor or bath room 
(especially the bath room) should not be used for 
this purpose. 

Hard coal should be used if the room is heated by 
a stove on account of its freedom from dust. 

In removing the ashes, they should be sprinkled with 
water first to prevent flying, then quietly shoveled up. 
The coal can be added in paper bags filled outside, 
thus avoiding all noise likely to disturb the patient. 

The temperature of the sick-room should be 68 de- 
grees F at night and 70 degrees F during the day. 



Fuel 

and 

Ashes 



CARE OF THE PATIENT 

A few essential points to be remembered in caring 
for the sick may be stated briefly. 

To properly care for a patient those undertaking the 
responsibility of the nursing must take proper care of 
thonsek'cs. Rest, recreation, and out of door exer- 
cise are positive necessities. 

If the same member of the family has both day and 
night nursing to do she should always dress herself 
as comfortably as possible for the night. A cold bath 



Care of 
the Nurse 



605 



14 HOMU i AKl: ()!• I JIJi M( K 

ill llu' iiioniiii^, with roiiipK-U' clianj^c- of tlolliin^', will 
l)c' loiiiid very rcfrt'shinj^. 

1 )rt'sscs of ii^lit wash iiiaU'iial slioiiM always 1)C 
worn wiuii atU'iKJiii^ llu- sick, hill dresses ainl skirts 
must never he stil'lly starehed, as the rustling ncjise 
Ihey make is very annoying to patients. S(|iieakin^ 
shoes are another ahomination. 
"Nnvers" Never whisper in or near the siek-room. 

Never disenss tlu' patient's eondition with her, or 
with anyone else in her hearinj^'. 

Never tell the patient what her teniperalnre, pulse, 
etc., are, not even when they are normal. 

Never tell the patient what medication you are j^iv- 
inj4" her. 

Nt'ver lean iioi' sit on the i)atient's hed, and he care- 
ful not to knock aj^ainst it in i)assin^. 
When When si)eakinj^ to a patient always stand in front 

of her, where she can see you; he j)artieularly careful 
not to speak to her suddenly from hehind, for when 
people are ill and nervous they are easily startled. 

Keep door and window hiuja^es well oiled; nothing is 
more a^^ravalini; than a S(|ueakinj4 door. 

When windows rattle, wed^c them a|)art hctweeii the 
sashes with piec'cs ol wood or newspaper. 

h'.specially at nij^hl, or. rather, when j^ctlinq' ready 
for the nij.;ht, attention must he |»aid to anything likely 
to i)rove a disturhinj.; clement to the patient's rest. 

Ik- fore the- patic-nt ^oes to sleep see that N'ou have 
ever\thiii,L; at hand that nou are likely to nee(l for the 



Speaking 



M Night 



606 



CARE 01' run I'ATlLiNT 



15 



night: Extra blankets — a shade for the liglit, if neces- 
sary — coal prepared in paper bags, as previously de- 
scribed — milk — water — all the medicines you will re- 
01 lire — ice, etc. Wrapping the ice in flannel or news- 
paper will keep it from melting. A hat pin makes an 
excellent and noiseless ice-pick. A large tin pan, en- 
veloped in a blanket, will make a serviceable refriger- 
ator in which to keep your ice, broth, milk and water. 

A shade for the lamp or gas can be easily made out 
of green or other dark colored cambric, but be sure 
that the globe over which it is pinned is far enough 
from the flame to avoid scorching the cambric. 

An uncomfortable bed is a great addition to the mis- 
eries of an invalid, therefore, one of the first essentials 
to be learned is how to make a bed. 

The mattress is covered by a sheet, stretched tightly 
and tucked firmly as far under it a*s possible ; folding 
the corners like an envelope helps to keep it firm. 

Another sheet called the ''draw sheet" is also used 
under the i)atient ; this is put on with the length across 
the bed, thus allowing a considerable fold under the 
mattress, thereby securing a further means of keep- 
ing the sheet tight. When putting the draw sheet on 
care must be taken to have it perfectly straight ; it is 
first tucked in on one side, well under the mattress. 
In tucking in the second side it is best to begin in the 
middle, going first towards the bottom, then from 
the middle to the top, pulling it very tightl\'. The top 
sheet and blankets (single blankets arc j^refcrable to 



Bed 
Making 



The 

Draw Sheet 



607 



i6 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

double) should be put on separately, the corners being- 
folded in, in the same manner as the under sheet. If 
it is not convenient to obtain a spread of dimity, or 
other light material, it is better to use a sheet, as the 
ordinary spread is heavy and gives comparatively lit- 
tle warmth. 
Protecting When it is necessarv to protect the mattress a rub- 

the Mattress . ' 

ber sheet is placed between the lower and draw sheets. 
White double faced rubber is the nicest for home use. 
The single faced rubber will answer the purpose and 
is cheaper, but it is not so easily kept clean. Either 
can be obtained at any rubber store. 

When impossible to get the regular rubber sheet- 
ing thin oil cloth, such as is used for covering tables, 
will serve. In cases of emergency, several thicknesses 
of newspapers may be used until something better can 
be obtained. 

CHANGING THE BED OF A HELPLESS PATIENT 

Before starting to change the bedding be sure that 
you have everything necessary near at hand, and that 
the bed clothes are all well aired, perfectly dry and 
warm. 

First take off the spread, fold it neatly ; next take 
off the top blanket, and hang it out to air. Fold the 
other blanket and upper sheet over the patient, leav- 
ing the ends just long enough to cover her when you 
turn her over. This method answers a threefold pur- 
pose: (i) it has a neat appearance; (2) it replaces the 



608 




CHANGING THE DRAW SHEET 



609 



i8 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

discarded blanket, and (3) the clothes are not in the 
way while you work. Loosen the lower sheets by rais- 
ing the mattress with one hand while drawing out the 
sheets with the other. Raising the mattress is impor- 
tant, because the draw sheet has been tucked so far 
under the mattress that otherwise you risk not only 
jolting the patient but also tearing the sheets. Re- 
move the pillows and if the patient does not object 
to lying flat for a while leave them out; if she does, 
one can be replaced. It is necessary to take them out 
to turn them and to make sure that there are no crumbs 
caught between them or in the pillow cases. 
Changing ^^^^ night gowu is the next thing changed. Have 

Night Gown ^^^^ patient lie on her back and flex her knees ; if she 
is well enough she can easily raise herself while in this 
position ; if not, place one hand under the buttocks 
and raise her, as you draw the gown up with the- other 
hand, then raise the shoulders in like manner, drawing 
the gown up over them and the head l^cfore taking 
out the arms. 

In putting on the clean gown roll the skirt up, and 
put the patient's head through the hole. Putting your 
hand through one sleeve grasp the patient's hand and 
draw it through ; then do likewise with the other sleeve. 
The gown is then pulled down in the same manner as 
the soiled one was taken off. 

The easiest way to change the under sheets is first 
to turn the patient on her side. 

To do this, stand on the side towards which you will 



610 



CHANGING THE BED 



19 



turn her, slip one hand over and under her, with your 
arm shghtly crooked, so that the hand and forearm 
will support and control one shoulder, the elbow sup- 
port the back of the head, and the arm the other shoul- 
der. Slip your other arm under the patient slantwise 
across the buttocks, so that the hand is under the 
small of the back. In this v/ay the patient is well sup- 
ported as you gently turn her towards you. If there 
is an assistant, one can hold her thus while the other 
manipulates the sheets ; if not, and the patient needs 
to be supported, a pillow placed wtU up against her 
back will answer the purpose. 

The sheets to be changed are folded close to the 
back of the patient, making the fold as flat as pos- 
sible. The clean sheet is either folded fan shape or 
rolled to its centre, the roll or fold, as the case may 
be, is placed close to the sheet being removed, the 
loose edge is tucked in, as far under the mattress 
as possible, the patient is then rolled gently over on 
to the clean sheet, the soiled one removed, and the clean 
sheet well stretched, and tucked in according to the 
directions given in the making of the bed. 

The top sheet is next changed. Placing the clean 
sheet over the sheet and blanket which are still over 
the patient ; on top of this put the blanket which has 
been airing, draw the other blanket and sheet from 
underneath, then tuck in the clean ones, put on the 
second blanket, if one is necessary, then the spread, 
and arrange the pillows. 



Turning 

the 

Patient 



Changing 

the 

Draw Sheet 



Changing 

the 

Top Sheet 



611 



20 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

The draw sheet, upper sheet, and night gown should 
be changed twice a day when the patient is not too 
ill ; if they are not soiled when removed, air them 
well, after which they may be used again. 

When the patient is not allowed to be bathed, her 
back should be washed with soap and warm water, 
rubbed with alcohol and powdered with talcum pow- 
der. This should be done while she is turned on her 
side for the changing of the sheet. When the night 
gown is closed in the back it is sometimes more con- 
venient not to put the clean gown on until the pa- 
tient's back has been washed. In such circumstances 
wrap a small shawl around the patient. 
Special When for any reason it is inadvisable to move the 

patient, and it is necessary for her to lie on her back, 
it is convenient to have short gowns, open in the 
back, buttoned at the back of the neck and shoulders. 
The skirts can be drawn from under the patient, enab- 
ling her to lie on the sheet, wdiich it vs comparatively 
easy to keep free from wrinkles. Another important 
advantage of the short gown is the ease with which it 
can be changed. Large collars or ruffles at the neck 
of the gown are very objectionable in illness. 

When changing the gown of a patient whose arm is 
disabled, the sleeve should be taken from the affected 
arm last, and the sleeve of the fresh gown put on first. 

LIFTING AND HANDLING THE PATIENT 

When lifting a patient it is important to stand 
firmly ; to do this the feet should be placed well apart, 



Gowns 



612 



LIFTING THE PATIENT 21 

bracing one foot against the leg of the bed. Try to 
bend the back as little as possible, make the knees 
do the bending. In lifting, endeavor to have the 
weight come on your shoulders, not on your back. For 
example, when a patient is to be helped into a sitting 
position, bend your knees till your shoulder is only 




A BACK REST, CANVAS COVERED. 

slightly higher than the patient's, then have her put her 
arm across your shoulders, have your shoulder di- 
rectly under her armpit, your elbow supporting her 
head, your hand under her other armpit — your other 
hand is thus free to arrange the pillows. Now raise 
the patient. By using this method your shoulder 
bears the burden, whereas if you attempt to raise the 
patient by bending your back, or if you have the pa- 
tient's arm around your neck, the entire weight must 



613 



22 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



The 
Back Rest 



Foot Brace 



Change of 
Position 



be sustained by your 1)ack, whicb will soon become 
strained. 

A back rest should always be provided when the 
.patient sits up in bed for the first time. Many varieties 
of these are to be had, and they are inexpensive ; some 
are made entirely of wood, others have a wooden 
framework with canvas stretched across it. A good 
substitute for the back rest is a straight back chair 
turned upside down. The pillows should be placed 
across the rest in such a way that the head will not 
be thrown forward and that the small of the back will 
be well supported. 

When the patient is obliged to sit up all, or nearly 
all the time, something should be provided for her 



to brace her feet against. 



A convenient arrangement 



for this purpose is a board the same length as the 
width of the bed and about twelve inches wide, placed 
between double folds of strong muslin which must be 
long enough to tie around the head of the bed when 
the board is supporting the patient's feet. The board 
may be padded on one side if desired. 

When a patient has slipped down in bed and needs 
to be draw^n up, place one arm under the shoulders 
in the usual crooked position so that your elbow may 
support her head, and taking a firm grip under the up- 
per part of her arm, put your other arm under the 
thighs, and move the patient gently upwards. If well 
enough the patient can flex her knees and help in the 
movement. 



614 



HANDLING THE PATIENT 23 

If a patient is so heavy "that two persons are re- 
quired to move her, they should stand on opposite sides 
of the bed and reaching across the patient's back firmly 
grasp her under the armpits, their crossed arms thus 
forming a \^-shaped rest for her head while they clasp 
each other's hands under her thighs. 

When the patient is well enough to help herself, put- 
ting a stout, broad piece of muslin round the foot of 
the bed with the ends long enough to be grasped, will 
help her to assume a sitting position ; one round the top 
of the bed will help her to pull herself up higher in 
bed. 

If necessary to change your charge from one bed 
to another, place the beds about five feet apart, parallel 
with each other, with the head of one on a line with 
the foot of the other. Unless the patient is very light 
there should be two to lift, both standing on the same 
side (between the beds). One puts her arms under 
the shoulders and buttocks, the other under the back 
and thighs. If possible have the patient hold herself 
stiff. Lift her gently in unison, turn round and place 
her on the fresh bed. 

If the patient is heavy three may be required to do 
this well. Under these circumstances the first lifter 
supports the head and small of the back, the second 
the shoulders and thighs, the third the buttocks and 
under the knees. 

^ When the lighting of the room or other considera- 
tions render it unadvisable to change the position of 



Changring: 
the Patient 
from One Bed 
to Another 



615 




616 



CHANGING THE MATTRESS 25 

the head of the bed, t^hey are placed near together with 
the heads on a hne. The patient is Hfted from the far 
side of the first bed, carried around between the two, 
and laid down in the second bed. This entails a 
longer carry, but if all work in unison it is not dif- 
ficult. 

TO CHANGE THE MATTRESS WITH THE 
PATIENT IN BED 

To the uninitiated this seems an almost impossible 
feat. In reality, if done according to rule, it is not 
much harder than changing the under sheets. If the 
patient is heavy four people will be required to ac- 
complish this deftly, two on either side of the bed. 
The sheets are loosened on all sides ; the top sheets 
and the blankets treated in the same manner as when 
the bed clothes were changed ; the under sheets are 
rolled tightly up to the patient's side (the roll being 
undermost). Using these rolls for support, the patient 
is moved to one side of the mattress ; this side is then 
pulled to the centre of the bed, curving the mattress 
upwards ; the fresh mattress is placed alongside, the 
patient lifted by the bed-clothes on to it, the dis- 
carded mattress removed, the fresh one drawn into 
place, and the patient lifted to the centre ; the sheets 
are again unrolled and tucked in place. 

THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF BED SORES 

A bed sore is gangrene, or death of the tissue of 
the affected parts. The bony prominences such as the 
lower part of the spine, the shoulder blades, elbows, 



617 




618 



BED SORES 



27 



and heels are the parts most likely to be affected. 
Moisture, wrinkles, crumbs, and a too long continu- 
ance in one position are the pre-disposing causes, 
therefore these conditions must all be guarded against. 
The presence of moisture is generally due to per- 
spiration, or discharge from wound, bowels or blad- 
der. When the two latter are the causes pads made 
of oakum or jute placed in cheese-cloth or old muslin, 
put on the patient like a child's diaper, will save the 
bed linen. These must be changed as often as neces- 
sary, and the patient well washed with warm water 
and soap ; dusting with a little talcum, starch, or rice 
powder will help to keep the skin dry and soft and it 
will also prevent chapping. Crumbs and wrinkles 
must also be guarded against. By keeping the draw 
sheet tightly drawn and tucked far under the mattress 
the latter will be overcome ; the former must be looked 
for after every meal ; brushing them out with the hand 
is the most efficient way, but a small whisk-broom may 
be used. 

At least twice a day all parts likely to be affected, 
especially the back, should be washed with warm water 
and soap, rubbed with 50 per cent alcohol, and dusted 
with talcum. This not only helps to prevent bed- 
sores but is unspeakably refreshing to the weary in- 
valid. Avoid using too much powder or it will cake 
and do more harm than good. 

A preparation of equal parts collodion and castor 
oil painted over the surface will often prevent a break- 
down of the tissue, by forming an artificial skin. 



Avoid 
Moisture 



Artificial 
Skin 



619 



28 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Relieving 
Pressure 



Care of 
a Sore 



Frequent change of position is another important 
means in the prevention of bed-sores. Prop the pa- 
tient over on her side by putting a couple of pillows 
lengthwise behind her, one under her shoulders, the 
other under the lower part of her back. Rings made 
of batting or sheet wadding wound with bandages ar( 
excellent mediums for relieving pressure. They should 

be made with the hole just 
large enough to permit of 
the bony prominence fitting 
into it. When the patient 
has to lie for some time on 
her back, often consider- 
able relief is given by flex- 
ing the knees. They can be 
supported either by a pillow 
doubled and tied to hold it 
so (the pointed side placed 
next the body), or a cylin- 
drical pillow made like the old-fashioned bolster, only 
smaller and stuffed with hair. Small pillows or hot 
water bags filled with cool water, placed under the 
small of the back, will help to make a long continu- 
ance of the dorsal position bearable. 

All pillows should be shaken and turned frequently. 
If the skin should become broken, the resulting sore 
should be washed daily with bichloride of mercury 
I-2000, and a dressing applied. Gauze soaked in 
balsam of- Peru or an ointment made of castoroil and 
zinc oxide powder are generally found efficacious. 




Wadding King, 
to Relieve Pressui-e 



620 



CONVALESCENCE 

The most anxious moments in nursing are certainly 
when the disease is at its hei^^ht, but by far the most 
trying are, as a rule, during the time of convalescence. 
It is then that the greatest exercise of tact, discern- 
ment, self-control and patience on the part of the at- 
tendant are necessary. 

Relapse, except in the 
germ diseases, is* nearly al- 
ways due to over-feeding, 
over-exertion, or nervous 
excitement. 

The diet is a very impor- 
tant factor in the treatment 
of convalescents. Carry out 
the doctor's orders minute- 
ly regarding it. Have, so 
far as you can, things that Rubber Air Cushion 

you know the patient likes. If she expresses a prefer- 
ence for a certain dish have it if allowable, but as a 
rule it is not wise to consult her on the subject. 

Always serve your patient's meals as daintily as pos- 
sible ; have the tray covered with a spotless table nap- 
kin or tray cover; use the prettiest china available; 
even one bright flower with a little green is a great 
attraction. But above all see that the food is properly 
cooked and properly served; that all hot things are 
very hot, and cold ones really cold. More salt and 
less sugar will generally be wanted than when in 

29 




Serving 
of Meals 



621 



30 HOME CARE OP THE SICK 

health. Highly seasoned food is not advisable or often 
desired even by those who like it when well. 

It is better to set before the invalid too little than 
too much, for it is easy to get more, and the sight of 
too much food on the tray is apt to imbue anyone 




Ul 




A Bedside Table Convenient for Serving Meals 

whose appetite is poor with a dislike for it. Besides, 
as the digestive functions are weakened during and 
after illness, it is better for a time to serve food in 
smaller quantities and oftener ; for instance, give an 
Qgg nog, milk punch, egg lemonade, egg albumen, or 
other light, easily digested drink between breakfast 



622 



CONl'ALESCliNCE 31 

and the noonday mieal, and again at three or four 
o'clock in the afternoon. A glass of hot milk given at 
bed-time will often induce sleep. 

Keeping the patient amused is another important 
item in the care of the convalescent. A few visitors 
(provided they do not stay too long, talk too much, 
or give any worrying or disagreeable news) will of- 
ten help to brighten up the patient. Playing cards or 
games, reading aloud to her, etc., will help to pass 
away the time and tire her less than talking. 

When people have been ill for some time the muscles 
of the eyes are apt to be weak and will be easily 
strained, so they ought not to be allowed to read much 
themselves, especially while they are In the recum- 
bent positk)n. 

Those who are strong and well little realize the ex- 
ertion and excitement caused by the first sitting up, 
after being confined to the bed for some time. 

The period is usually limited to half an hour the 
first day, gradually increasing the time as the patient 
can stand it. Do not wait for her to complain of 
fatigue; on showing the first signs of it she should 
be put to bed. Of course jthere are patients who think 
themselves a great deal worse than they really are, 
and who have to be encouraged to sit up longer than 
they think they can. At such times the pulse is a 
good guide. 

Do not really dress the patient until she is well 
enough to walk around. Warm stockings, bed slip- 



Amusing 

the Patient 



Sitting- Up 
for the 
First Time 



623 



32 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

pers, a warm wrapper and blankets are all that are 
necessary. 
Lifting If the patient has been seriously ill she should not 

a Chair be allowed to stand or exert herself in the least when 
sitting up the first few times. If not too heavy she 
can be lifted by one person. The arms of the patient 
are locked about the neck of the attendant, who, plac- 
ing one arm under the thigh, the other under the back, 
lifts the patient into the chair, the back of which is 
parallel with the foot of the bed. 

When two people are required to do the lifting they 
should stand at the same side of the bed, placing the 
hands, one under the shoulders and buttocks, the 
other under the thighs and ankles, and lifting in uni- 
son, turn and seat the patient gently in the chair. The 
chair should be made comfortable with pillows, and 
the patient kept warm with blankets. When possible 
the chair should be carried carefully into an adjoining, 
w^ell-aired room. The sick-room and bed should be 
w^ell aired and made ready immediately for the patient's 
return, as it may be necessary for her to be put back 
to bed sooner than expected. 

CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH 

While caring for the hair protect the pillow-case 
with a towel. When the hair is tangled always hold 
it between the tangle and the head to avoid pulling it. 
Rubbing" a little vaseline into the scalp will help to 
get the snarls out more easily. To avoid tangles the 



624 



CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH 



33 



hair should be brushed twice daily and braided in two 
plaits. 

If the scalp is kept clean by rubbing it occasionally 
with a little alcohol and water (equal parts) the hair 
always well brushed, and rubbed once in a while be- 
tween a damp wash-rag, it may not be necessary to 
wash it for quite a while. 

When it must be washed, protect the pillow and 
upper part of the bed with a rubber sheet covered 
with a bath towel. Pull the pillows down under the 
back so that the head extends somewhat beyond them 
and over a basin of water. Have a slop jar at hand 
in which to empty the water, and plenty of warm 
water to wash the soap out thoroughly. Support the 
head with one hand while you wash it. Dry the hair 
well after washing. A little alcohol or hair tonic con- 
taining it, well rubbed into the scalp, will lessen the 
chance of the patient taking cold. 

When the patient is unable to brush her own teeth 
it is often easier to do it for her with clean gauze 
wrapped around the index finger or the end of a piece 
of whalebone, than with a tooth-brush. In illness 
sordes (tartar) is apt to collect between the teeth un- 
less they are very frequently and carefully cleansed. 

Clean not only the teeth but also the gums, the roof 
of the mouth and the tongue. Whalebone and gauze 
are far better for this purpose than the brush. When 
a patient is on milk diet her tongue and mouth should 
be cleansed after each feeding. 



Washing 
the Hair 



Care 
of the 
Teeth 



Care 
of the 
Mouth 



625 



34 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

Some good month zvasJies are: 

(i) Equal parts of listerine, boric acid 4 per cent, 
lemon juice and water, 

(2) Listerine, one ounce; peroxide of hydrogen, 
three drachms ; alboHne, one drachm. 

(3) Tincture of myrrh, half a drachm; soda bi- 
carbonate, grains twenty ; aboline, one drachm. 

(4) Listerine and water, equal parts. 

BATHS AND BATHING 

Perhaps there is nothing that will give greater re- 
freshment to the invalid, obliged to He in bed day 
after day, than a bath. Unless contrary to the physi- 
cian's orders, one should be given every day. If given 
in a warm room, without exposure, there is absolutely 
no danger of the patient taking cold. To make mat- 
ters doubly sure, before taking out of the bath blank- 
ets, rub the patient all over with 50 per cent alcohol. 
The Never give a bath until an hour after a meal. Be- 

^^Isath fore beginning see that the room is not only warm but 
free from draughts, also that you have everything 
needed at hand. It is best to have the water in a foot 
tub ; it will keep warm longer than in a shallow basin. 
Have a pitcher of hot water to keep the bath the re- 
quired temperature. 

A large blanket, face and bath towels, wash cloths, 
alcohol and powder are the other necessary articles. 
Slip the blanket under the patient. If it is not wide 
enough to come well round her and also for the ends 



626 



BATHS AND BATHING 35 

to overlap, use two. The blanket may be covered by 
a sheet if necessary but the wool next the body is de- 
sirable. 

Take off the night-gown and fold down the upper 
bed clothes — the face and neck are washed first and 
well dried, then the arms and hands. Be particular 
about drying between the fingers, also around and in- 
side the ears. Especially while washing the face have 
a firm touch. Expose only one portion of the body 
at a time, and that not longer than necessary. Dry 
each part well before going on to the next ; in order 
not to fatigue the patient, work as quickly as possible. 
It should be necessary to turn her only once. The 
towels should be warmed by wrapping them around a 
hot water bottle. It is well to give hot broth or milk 
soon after the bath. 

To give a foot bath, loosen the bed clothes at the 
bottom, protect the bed with a blanket, put the foot root Bath 
tub, half full of water lengthwise on the bed, flex 
the patient's knees, raise her feet with one hand while 
you draw the tub under them with the other ; wrap 
a blanket round tub and knees. 

When mustard is desired, make a paste of the 
mustard — about two tablespoonsful to a large foot 
tub. The feet remain in about twenty minutes, the 
bath being kept at the same temperature by the addi- 
tion of hot water from time to time. Be careful in 
adding the hot water not to pour it in near the feet. 



The 



627 



3^) 



HOMIi CAIUi Ol' rilli SICK 



Baths for 
Reduction of 
Temperature 



"Brand" 
Treatment 



When the hath is over wraj) the feet in the hianket for 
a few niinntes, then (hv. 

To ^ive a halh h)r the icfhiclion of temperature a 
lar^e rnhher (covered with a sheet) is necessary to 
protect the hed, as a considerahle amount of water must 
he used. 

There are several (Ulferent kinds oi \)cx\ haths j^iven 
for this j)urpose. Sometimes the patient is simply 
s])on^ed off with cold water, at others a hot sponge 
comes first, followed hy the cold which often consists 
of equal parts of alcohol and water, made colder at 
times hy the addition of ice. 'The doctor always orders 
the temperature of the hath, and also the duration, 
which is ^'■enerally from ten to twenty minutes. 

in .i^ivini^- these l)aths, use slow, lon^-, cnrvinj^-, down- 
ward strokes, and plenty of water. Where there is a 
liij^h lemi)eratnre there is no dauj^-er of catchinj^;' cold, 
and as eradiation of heat is the effect sout^ht, the pa- 
tient should he exposed as much as ])Ossil)le. It is 
olten desirahle, when the sponj^'in;^' is over, to ruh the 
l^atient with alcohol, and fan till dry. 

When ])ossiI)le, the "Ih-.'md" treatment is used for 
the reduction of temperature (es])eciallv in txphoid). 
Vov this, a porlahle tuh, which can he wheeled to the 
hedside, is re(|uired. It would not he safe to ^\vq sucli 
a bath without the assistance of a doctor or trained 
nurse; it is, therefore, not worth while S"^in.q- into de- 
tails, and, except in cases of lonq" continued fever, 
the hed hath is c^enerally all that is necessary^ 



628 



BATHS AND BATHING 



37 



When given a hot bath in a tub, fill the tub three- 
fourths full of water ; the exact temperature will be 
ordered by the doctor, usually it is from io6 degrees 
F to 1 lo degrees F. The doctor also states how long 
he wishes the patient to remain in the bath. When 
giving a hot bath of any kind, for any purpose, al- 
ways apply cold cloths or an ice cap to the head. A 
hot drink given either while the patient is in the tub 



Hot Baths 
to Induce 
Perspiration 
or Quiet 
the Nerves 




BATH THERMOMETER 



or after the return to bed will further induce perspira- 
tion. Mustard is sometimes added to these baths, just 
as it is to the foot bath. 

While in the tub the patient's pulse must be noted 
carefully, as such baths are sometimes very depressing 
to the heart. After the bath the patient must go to 
bed immediately, and remain there well covered, and 
care must Idc taken to have warm clothing going from 
the bath to the bed. These baths are also given to 
children in convulsions. 

The hot-pack, or sweat, is generally considered a bet- 
ter medium for inducing i)erspiration. To give this 
protect the bed with a rubber sheet or oil cloth, wring 
out two old blankets in water 130 degrees F, put one 
under the patient and around one arm and leg, the 



Precautions 



The Hot pai 
or Sweat 



629 



38 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

other over the patient and around the other arm and 




GIVING A HOT-PACK 



leg; put an ice cap or cold compress on the head, a 
hot water bag at the feet, another over the heart, 




HOT-FACK COMPLETEIJ 



others along the side, over all wrrap a couple of dry 
blankets; give a hot drinks The patient generally re- 



630 



BATHS AND BATHING 



39 



mains in the pack from twenty minutes to half an hour. 
The pulse should be taken every five minutes, and as 





HOT WATER BOTTLES 



the hands are under the blankets it must be taken at 
the temporal artery. 




HOT WATER BOTTLE FOR THE SPINE 

After being taken out of the pack the patient should 
be rolled in a dry blanket and remain so for an hour. 



631 



40 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Salt Baths 




Water Bottle for the Throat 



Except where a light weight is desirable, as over 
the heart and abdomen, a good substitute for the rub- 
ber hot water bag is a stone bottle ; even a glass one can 
be used, and if a wire a couple of inches longer than 

the bottle is put into it 
to act as a heat con- 
ductor, it can be filled 
with quite hot water 
without breaking. When 
using hot water bags or 
bottles of any kind, pre- 
cautions must be taken 
to avoid burning the 
patient, which is very easily done, especially with old 
people, or where from any cause, the circulation of the 
blood is sluggish or the tissues in poor condition ; 
therefore, see that the bottles are tightly corked, that 
they are well and securely covered (flannel bags slight- 
ly larger than the bottles make the best covering) ; 
never put them too near the patient, and remember that 
when the patient is restless the bags are apt to slip 
nearer than you intended them to be. 

Salt baths are given for their tonic effects. A bath 
sufficiently strong to redden the skin and have an ex- 
hilarating effect will require ten pounds of ordinary 
sea salt to a bath tub about half full of water. 

The average standard temperature for baths is as 
follows : 



632 



SICK ROOM METHODS 41 

Cold 33°-65° Fahr. Tepid.85°- 92° Fahr. . 

Cool 67°-75° Fahr. Warm92"- 98° Fahr. 

Temperate. 75°-85° Fahr. Hot. .98°-! 12° Fahr. 

The regular bath thermometer is encased in wood 
to protect it from hard usage, but the ordinary atmo- 
spheric thermometer will answer the purpose just as 
well. Mix the water well before taking the temper- 
ature. 

SICK ROOM METHODS 

Taking and Recording Temperature, Pulse and Respiration 
Observation and Recording of Symptoms 

• The heat of the blood is ascertained by means of the ciinicai 
clinical thermometer. These thermometers are self Thermometer 
registering and vary in delicacy, the finest ones regis- 
tering in one minute, others in from three to five min- 
utes. The more expensive ones magnify the scale, 
and are therefore easier for the novice to read. Hick's 
thermometer is probably the best. 

The temperature is taken either in the mouth, rec- 
tum or armpit. Before using the thermometer the 
mercury must be shaken down to 95°. Be careful not 
to shake it into the bulb, or the thermometer will be 
rendered useless and also be careful not to hit it 
against anything, as it will break very easily. While 
in constant use it is best kept in a glass containing a 
little boric acid or listerine, with some soft cotton in 
the bottom of the glass. 



633 



4-i 



HOME CARE or '11 IE SICK 



VVIicii l.ikiii'' llic IciiipiTaliirc l)v inoiilli he sure 

J eniperature ^ • 

i,y Mouth (|,.^j ,1,^. p;iij,.,,| |,;is not liad aiiytliin^ lo cat (^r drink 

recently. I'lace the end of llie instrnment 
containing' the mercury under the tongue, 
on either sidi-. See that the hps are tiglitly 
closer] all the time the therniometer is in the 
iHonlh, and do not leave it in place longer 
than necessary. 

Never take the temperature of a de- 
lirious patient nor a child hy the mouth; 
(hey are likely to l)ite off ihe hulh and 
swallow the mercury. If this accident 
should occur give white of c^^ immediately 
and nolify the ])li\sician. In such cases it 
is always safer to take the temperature hy 
rectum and il is also expedient to take a 
rectal lemperature when the patient is very 
ill, for this is the most accurate metluMl. 

Tie fore inserting the thermometer, the 

hull) should he oiled and precautions taken 

to have the rectum free from faeces. Five 

minutes should he allowed for registration. 

The temperature will he one degree higher 

ciiiiiciii lli'iii when taken hy mouth. 

Tii.Tiuonirtcr 'rile axillary temperature will he from 

tluce-tenths to half a degree lower than the mouth. 

The anii|)il must he wij)ed thoroughly hefore taking; 

the thermometer is (hen |)laci"d in the hollow, and kept 

in place hy holding the arm close to the side and Ilex- 






634 



SICK ROOM METHODS 



43 



ing the elbow so that the liand rests on the opposite 
shoulder. It will take ten minutes for the thermometer 
to register. 

The normal temperature of the human body is from 
98° F. to 99° F. The temperature is apt to be high- 
est between 4 p. m. and 8 p. m. and it reaches the 
lowest ebb about 3 a. m. This fact makes it essential 
that special care be taken of the sick m the early hours 
of the morning, the lowering temperature indicating 
a lower vitality. 

Though a rise of temperature is always to be re- 
garded with suspicion it must be remembered that 
many causes (especially with children) may create a 
slight deviation from the normal, without anything 
serious being the matter. Constipation will often cause 
a rise of temperature, sometimes even a slight cold, 
attack of indigestion, or undue excitement will do the 
same, while profuse perspiration or diarrhoea is apt 
to cause a sub-normal temperature. 

A sub-normal temperature is far more dangerous 
than the same number of degrees above normal. If a 
patient's temperature drops to 97.5" or 97"^ she should 
be rolled in blankets, a hot water bag put at the feet, 
another over the heart, and a cup of hot coffee or milk 
given. If the temperature does not soon respond to 
this treatment the doctor should be notified. 

The following table gives the different variations 
of temperature : 



Normal 
Temperature 



High 
Temperature 



Sub -Normal 
Temperature 



635 



44 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

Hyperpyrexia. . . .105° and over, extremely dangerous 

High Fever 103° 105° 

Moderate Fever 101° 103° 

Sub-febrile 99/^" 101° 

Normal 98° 99^° 

Subnormal 97° 98° 

Collapse 95° 97° 

Algid Collapse Below 95°, extremely dangerous 

Temperature A record of the temperature is of great value, not 

only in diagnosis, but also in watching the course of 
the disease ; it should therefore be charted every time 
it is taken. This can be done in figures, but the reg- 
ular clinical temperature chart conveys a clearer idea 
of how the temperature is running. The temperature 
should Ijc taken at the same time each day ; when it 
does not deviate much from the normal twice a day, 
morning and evening, is sufficient ; otherwise it should 
be taken every three or four hours, according to the 
nature of the case. 
Che Pulse A thorougli knowledge of the pulse can only be 

gained by constant study and practice. It takes many 
months of careful observation of the numerous cases 
in the hospital ward, before the medical student or 
nurse can readily discern between the various charac- 
teristics of the different pulses. It is, therefore, im- 
possible to go very deeply into the subject here. 

The three principal things to be learned are: (i) 
How to count it; (2) to discern if it is regular or ir- 
regular; (3) if strong or weak. 



636 



.SVCVs' NOOM MI'/J I/OUS 45 

To count llic jnilse places the index and middle fin- to count 
gcrs on the wrist, on tlie thunih side, where the ra^hal 
artery can easily Ix- felt, ("mint it for a full miiintc, di- 
viding llic iiiiiinh- inio (juarters, as you can tlien tell 
if the fr(f|neney oi the pulse is regular or irrej.(ular. 
lor instance, if you count fifteen heats in one (juarter 
and twenty in another, you will know that the fre- 
(juency of the ])ulse is irrej^^ular. 

If some l)eats are strong- and others weak the (|ua!- 
ily of the i)ulse is irrej^'ular. 15y careful considera- 
tion of the pulse every time you take it, it soon hecomes 
jKJSsiljle to realize where there is a difference in ihe 
quality of the pulse; that is, when it is stronger or 
weaker. 

The pulse can he taken at the temporal .irtery when ^ , 

' ' ■' Pulsft by 

for any reason it is impossihle to take it at the wrist, Tejnporai 
it also can Ijc felt in the ^rr^in. 

The averaj^e nrjrmal ])ulse is: 

In men from 60 to 70 heats per minute 

Jn wrjmen from 65 to Ho heats per minute 

In childrcMi from 90 to 100 heats per minutct 

Just as the temi;erature, even in health, is affected 
by certain conditions, so is the pulse; food, exercise, 
excitement, will all cause an increase in tlic ]julse rate. 

The ]ju]se should al\va\s he taken and recorded al 
the samct time as the tem]>erature. The pulse is gen- 
erally written in figures. When there is any differ- 
ence in the fjuality, or if it is irregular this also should 
be recorded. 



637 



The 
Respiration 



46 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



A record of the respiration is also often required. 
The respiration being more or less under the control 
of the patient it is never wise to let her know that you 
are taking it ; therefore, keep hold of her wrist, as 
though you were still counting her pulse, and watch 
the rise and fall of the chest. If you find it hard to 



Keeping 
Records 



Jfame .iJiiamjai—Tord 


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Z)afe Janu. ar\^ 1 <l a 4, 


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Hour. 


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loj" 
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lOJ' 
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P 



TEMPERATURE, PULSE, AND RESPIRATION CHART 

count by simply looking, hold the patient's hand on 
her chest, then you can feel the motion as well. This 
is generally the easier method for the beginner. Count 
it as you do the pulse, for a full minute in quarters. 
The inspiration and expiration count as one breath. 

Besides the temperature, pulse and respiration, a 
record must be kept of all medication given, and also 
of all changes in the patient's condition. If the pa- 
tient has pain note it, stating where the pain is and 



638 



SICK ROOM METHODS 47 

if it be continuous or only in paroxysms. When medi- 
cine is given to relieve the pain state with what re- 
sult. When the patient is on liquid diet, the amount 
of fluids taken during the twenty-four hours should 
be charted every morning. 

Mark every movement of the bowels ; observe the 



U.ne Dr. 


















, fc^lioveS. :>c><f.e» 






-cS>.-, 



.-.V.^^l. •^Iv.'c.t c. ..t'.oK- 



^. Ov^vi^^A.-v-«->.OlV\X. c)\3i,.\Xv^^-^ 



.5 












%'(«V''^ =-^ -- 



»«- d..,.,^nac 



»„^S v» ,,^.<t 



"Vh.^Ca''.^ 'li.o'^^-^i ^N.t.vi-.'■a>i 



A '^^.'v^^C?^^^.^<, ^ Jt^?Vt.\V ^■< V" «» " ' 






BEDSIDE NOTES AS MADE IN A HOSPITAL 

movements carefully to see if there is anything abnor- 
mal in their appearance. If so, not only describe it in 
your record, but save the movement for the doctor's 
inspection. The same thing should be done if the 
patient vomits. 

When there is not sufficient urine voided, report it ; 
also if there is anything untoward in its appearance. 



639 



48 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Important 
Items 



Forty ounces is the amount that should normally be 
voided in twenty-four hours. In fevers there is apt 
to be less, and what is passed will be hig-hly colored. 
In nervous diseases, on the contrary, there is likely 
to be a larger amount of a pale color. Perspiration, a 
chill or chilly feeling, coughing, expectoration, restless- 
ness, the amount of discharge from wounds, are all 
items of import of which the doctor must know the 
details to treat the patient understandingly. He never 
will fully know them unless they are clearly and con- 
cisely written down at the time they happen. 

The accompanying temperature chart and record is 
an example of hospital practice. 



Rules 



THE GIVING OF MEDICINE 

A few rules to be remembered in giving medicines 
are: 

1. Always give exactly wdiat the doctor orders, 
neither more nor less. 

2. Always give medicine on time — if a dose is due 
at twelve, give it at twelve and not at half past. 

3. Medicines intended to be taken before meals 
should be given twenty minutes before meal-time, 
those to be taken after eating, twenty minutes after 
the meal is finished. 

4. Never give medicine without reading the label 
on the bottle twice ; before and again after pouring 
it out. 



640 



GIVING OF MEDICINE 49 

5. When pouring medicine always hold the label 
on the upper side, to avoid defacing it. 

6. Do not use spoons for measuring for they are Measuring 
never accurate; small graduated glasses, which are 
infinitely better, can be bought at any drug store for 

about ten cents. 

7. When pouring hold the mark of the quantity you 
require on a level with your eye. 

8. Always shake the bottle before pouring out the 
medicine. 

9. The bottle should always be recorked immedi- 
ately after use, for many medicines contain volatile 
substances and are apt to become either stronger or 
weaker than intended, if left uncorked. 

10. Medicines containing iron shoulo be taken 
through a glass tube or straw, as they discolor the 
teeth. 

1 1 . Some medicines, notably several that are given 
for coughs, should be given undiluted, while others 
on account of their irritating properties should be 
very w^ell diluted. Never dilute more than necessary, 
for the addition of a large quantity of water often 
renders a disagreeable dose still more unpleasant to 
take. 

12. Holding a piece of ice in the mouth for a short 

time before taking medicine will often render a dis- away 

^ the Taste 

agreeable fla^^or less noticeable ; a drink of seltzer aft- 
erward will help to ''take away the taste." Castor oil 
given with lemon juice, a piece of ice small enough to 



641 



so 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Powders 
and Fills 



Injections 



swallow, seltzer added just before taking, and a drink 
of seltzer after, is not at all unpalatable. Holding 
the nose while taking medicine will also diminish the 
taste. 

13. Insoluble powders such as calomel, bismuth and 
acetanilid should be placed far back on the tongue 
and washed down with a swallow of water. Those 
with a disagreeable taste can be given in jam or bread 
or encased in w^afers or capsules which can be bought 
for the purpose. 

14. Pills also can be made easier to swallow by 
giving in bread or jelly. Unless pills are freshly made, 
they should l)e pulverized, as they soon become so dry 
and hard that they will not readily dissolve in the 
stomach. 

15. Never buy a large quantity of medicine at a 
time, there are very few kinds that will not deteriorate 
by keeping; and because a medicine is beneficial in 
one case, do not imagine that you can give it to every- 
one whom you may think has the same ailment. 

16. Medicines should be kept in a cool, dry place 
and properly labeled. All poisons should be marked as 
such and kept under lock and key. 

Medicine is occasionally given by rectum, either 
when a local effect is desired or when the stomach is 
unable to retain it. 

When medicine is given by rectum it is generally or- 
dered well diluted. The water, added for this purpose, 
should be warm enough to make the injection about 



642 



GIVING OF MEDICINE 



51 



100° F. A rubber rectal tube, or a large size rubber 
catheter, connected by a glass connecting tube with a 
piece of rubber tubing about eighteen inches long, 
into the further end of which has been fitted a small 
glass funnel, are the best in giving medicinal enemata. 

Let warm water run 

through the tube to be sure 

that it is in working order ; 

this will also heat it and 

thus avoid cooling the med- 

Porceiain Feeding Cup ication. Grease the tube 

well, with oil or vaseline, and before inserting it fill 

the funnel with the solution, allow half of it to run 






GLASS DRINKING CUP 

through, back into the pitcher, pinch the rubber to pre- 
vent the rest running through. This is done to avoid 
getting air into the intestine. 

I^Vjr sedative enemata (these generally consist of 
bromide or chloral) the tube is only inserted about six 



643 



5-; 



no Ml'. ( .iKi: or I III' .\i( K 



Nutiitiv«i 
Kiit^iiiiita 



SiippoNitorlMH 



iiicliis, lull Ini ;,liiiiiil.il iii}^ ('iiciii.'il.'i (l)i";iii<lv <»r wliisky 
and sail sniiilioii ) aii<l mil rilivc i-iiciiiala, llic liihc is in- 
st'i"l((| ahniil loinlrcii iiK Iks, and a small pillow placccl 
Ixiii-alii llic liips lo lu-l|) IIh- ni)vvar(| llovv. WIkmi ^\v- 
iii^; liu'sc ('iK'iiias have llic |)ali(iil li<- <»ii licr hack. 
Molding'; a lidded lowcl l«» llu- aims, alltr llic iciiMival 
ol llic liil)i', will lulp llu- |)ali(iil to rclaiii llu- iii- 

jc(li< )!l. 

Niiliilivi' ciu'iiiala i^ciicrallv coiisisl ol" |)( ploiii/fd 

milk, wliilc ol c^K, •'''''' '""' *'"*■ •'' '''*■ '"■'■' |"<piii"it- 
lioiis made csprriallN' loi llial ptiiposc; l)iil every 
doctor lias liis (»wii lormiila and will specih liow lie 
wishes it prepared. When patients are having niitrr- 
li\'e eiiemata eoiislaiilh llie\ iiiiisl lia\c a ( leaiisin^ 
enema dail\, and this iiinsi he ^iven al least an lionr 
heloif llie iie\l iiiilrilivc one is due, and not till two 
or tlii'ee hours altiT the last one has heen ^ivcn. 

Staitli and other eiiiollieiil eiiemata are sometimes 
j;iveii in diarrhoeas ami d\seiiler\. To prepare ihi' 
starch mix a teaspooiiliil ol l:iiiiidr\' starch in (oM 
water, add a Icacnplnl ol hot water, let it <(tiiic to the 
lioil. .\ lew dro|)S ol laiidanmn are soiiieliiiics addi-d 
to this; when it is oidcicd, he very aeemalc in count- 
iiit- the drops. 

The suppositoiN' is another method ol jiMvini; reital 
iiieduatioii. This is a conical shape<l pre|>aialion ol 
eocoa hiillei in which the re(|uired drii^ is incoipo- 
laled. It IS oiled and i;eiill\ insciti-d, pointed end lore- 
most, the paliciil hiiii; on the lell side-. 



()'1'1 



(,/riN(j ol' MI'.DICINI: 



5.^ 



Medicalioi) for llic tliroal is (jftcii given by means 
of the at(>nn/( r. V\ li< ii using tliis see that the pa- 
tient's tongue is held (i<nvn sufficiently in allow ihe 
spray to reach the affected parts, and Ije careful not 
1() 1(1 the cud of the atomizer touch Ihc hack of the 
l)atient's throat, as this tends to induce vomiting. 

The inhalation of vapor is another method of con- 
veying medication to the throat and also to tiie bron- 
chial tubes and lungs. Mix the medicine with boiling 




1 1 Y I »ODRRMIC SYRINO E 

water and j^nt in a small kettle over an alcohol lamp. 
.With stiff brown |>ajj(T, make a cone, one <-iid to \\\ 
over the month and nose, the other over the spout of 
the kettle. 

When rapid absorption is necessary medicine is 
sometimes given hypodermically. The hyj)odermic is 
a graduaterl syringe to which a hollow needle is at- 
tached. As hy])odermic injections are attended with 
great clanger unless properly given, no one should at- 
tempt to administer medicine this way witiiout being 
|>ersr>nally instructed l)y a physician or nurse. In 
giving medication hyj)odermically, the greatest clean- 
liness should be (jbserved ; the flesh, where the injec- 



Inhalatione 



Hypodermic 
Iiij«<;tions 



645 



54 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

tion is to be made, must be well washed with alcohol, 
the needles should be attached to the syringe and alco- 
hol drawn into the syringe and expelled several times 
before the medicine is drawn in. When the syringe is 
filled with the required amount, expel the air by point- 
ing the needle upward and gently pressing the piston 
till a drop appears at the point of the needle. Be care- 
ful not to let the needle touch anything after it has 
been cleaned — if it should, hold it in the alcohol again 
for a minute before inserting. The injection may be 
given in the outer side of the arms, thighs or abdomen. 
Hold the flesh between the thumb and first finger of 
the left hand, plunge the needle in with one quick 
downward movement, inject the fluid slowly by gently 
pressing the piston. Draw the needle out quickly. Rub 
the spot where the injection was made for a few sec- 
onds to hasten absorption. 

Clean the instrument with alcohol before putting 
it away. 

PURGATIVE, ENEMATA, DOUCHES AND CATHETER- 
IZATION 

Cleansing The purgative, or as it is also called, cleansing en- 

ema, is given as its name indicates for the purpose of 
washing out the intestines. It is generally resorted to 
when cathartic medicine fails to act, when immediate 
catharsis is necessary, or when for any reason the pa- 
tient is unable to take a cathartic by mouth. 

The long rubber rectal tube is the best appliance for 



Enema 



646 



ENEMAS 



55 



the giving of such enemata; the water is injected 
higher into the bowel and there is a steadier flow than 
when any of the bulb syringes are used. This can be 
attached by means of a connecting tube to the tube of 
the ordinary fountain syringe bag. See that the stop 
cock is on the tube. 

The cleansing enema generally consists of a soap 



Soap Enema 




GLASS DOUCHE NOZZLES 

suds made with ''ivory" or castile soap; the froth of 
which should be removed as it contains too much air ; 
the temperature should be about 98° F. Make the soap 
suds in a pitcher, pour it into the bag, let some run 
through the tube to warm it and expel the air, shut 
the stop cock, grease the rectal tube. Hang or hold 
the bag not more than three feet higher than the 
patient. 

The bed should always be protected with a rubber 
sheet and large towel, the patient lies on her left side 
with the knees well flexed. The tube should be in- 



647 



56 HOME CARIi OP Tllli SICK 

serted very |:^cntly, never use force, let the water run 
in slowly. If much ])ain is f^iven shut the water off 
occasionally, for a minute or two. When a sufficient 
quantity has heen jL;iven (two to three ])ints for an 
adult, one for a child) remove the tube {|uickly, l)ut 
j:;;"ently, and press a folde(l towel lo the anus. The 
lluid to do much t^ood should he retained from fifteen 
to twenty minutes. 

After use the tube must be carefully cleansed, wash 
it in warm soap suds and water, afterward let a (|uan- 
tity of hot water run through it, hang- it up lengthwise 
to drip till perfectly dry. 

When used for more than one person the tube 
should always be boiled for five minutes after use. 

Douches are given, as a rule, either for cleanliness 
Douches ,)j- ^(^ relieve inflammation. When used for the former 
j)urpose the solution should be of a temperature rang- 
ing from ioo° F. to iio° ¥. When given to relieve in- 
dammation it is generally re(iuired very hot even ii8° 
or 120° P., and great care nuist then be taken not to 
l)urn the patient by having it any hotter; mix the 
water well before you test it. Some disinfectant is 
often added, carbolic or Ijichloride being the ones most 
frequently used ; they should, however, never be used 
without a doctor's order. In giving, the patient lies 
on her l)ack, have the douche i)an ])laced under her 
])roperly so that the return (low of the water will run 
into it. Put a ])ill()w under the small of the back. 
Pefore insertin<j- the nozzle let the water How through 



Vaginal 



648 



DOUCHES 57 

llic tube, to expel the air. Insert j^cntly and move 
it around wliile in. 

'I'lie douclie nozzle should always he hoiled (jr 
washed in l)oric acid, or other disinfectant, after use. 
(jlass douche nozzles are preferable to any other. They 
can be attached to the ordinary fountain syringe. 

Catheterization inipro])erly performed is fraught catheterizatio] 
with so much danger to the patient that it must not be 





GLASS CATHETER 

attempted till further instruction than can be given in 
writing is obtained. 

Catheterization is necessary when the patient is un- 
able to void urine naturally, but there are many simple 
devices which should all be tried before this is resorted 
to; for instance, put hot water in the l)ed pan, allow 
water to run frr)m a faucet within hearing (if this is 
impossible pour water fn)m one vessel to another), 
squeeze a sponge dipped in warm water over the lower 
part of the abrlomen, or hot stupes can be applied, and, 
this failing, the stupes can ])e alternated with ice. 



649 



be Taken 



58 IlOMli CARU 01' 'J'JJJt .SJCK 

111 |)rci)ariii^ to catlic'tcrizc it is necessary to exer- 
cise not only the greatest cleanliness but asepsis. The 
catheter (j^lass ones are preferable for women) should 
be l)oilt'(| for five minutes. Have at hand some small 
sterile swabs (see chapter on ase])sis) in a solution of 
boric acid. ]*ut the patient on the bed pan (leavinj^ it 
furtlu-r in front than for ordinary use), have the ])a- 
ticnt's kiu'c'S Hexed and separated, drape a sheet 
around her legs, leaving the vulva exposed. Then 
wash llic hands well with soap and hot water, soaking 
Caro to them afterwards in a solution of bichloride of mer- 
cury, i-iooo. With the left hand se])aratc the labia, 
and carefully wash all around the meatus ( the o])en- 
iiig to lilt' urethra, the tube leading to the bladder) ; 
into this oj)eiiing the catheter is then carefully intro- 
duced, il must not be forced forward if any obstruc- 
tion is met with, but withdrawn slightly and the course 
changed. 

When the bladder is very much distended it should 
not be em])tied entirely at one time; when a pint or 
a i)iiil and a half has l)een withdrawn remove the 
catheter and insert it again four or five hours later. 

Before removing the catheter, the index finger is 
placed over the end ; this j)revents drops of urine 
falling upon the bed. 



650 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS 



59 



Poultices and fomentations are applied for the relief 
of localized pain, when caused by inflammation. The 
heat, by dilating the superficial blood vessels, draws 
the blood from the congested area. 

The linseed poultice is the one most generally used. 
To make it, stir the meal slowly and evenly into water 
while it is boiling. When it is thick enough not to 
run, boil it a minute more ; remove from the fire and 
beat it briskly. When properly made it is perfectly 
smooth, and just stiff enough to drop away from the 
spoon. Spread it on a piece of muslin the required 
size and shape, leaving an inch margin all round to 
turn over. The side which is to go next to the patient 
is best covered with cheesecloth or gauze. This is cut 
slightly larger than the muslin, so as to turn back 
over it to keep the contents of the poultice in place. 
• Few poultices should be more than half an inch 
thick. They should always be a])plied as hot as the 
patient can possibly stand them. To keep the poultice 
warm while taking it to the bedside it can be placed 
between two hot plates or rolled in a piece of hot 
flannel. The flannel can be left over it when applied 
if there is no oil muslin or oil paper to be obtained ; 
these latter are preferable, however, as they are very 
light and keep in the heat and moisture better. 

The poultice is kept in place by a bandage. A muslin 
binder is the best means for keeping a chest poultice 
in place. Poultices should always be shaped to fit the 



Linseed 
Poultice 



Applying 



651 



Sinapisms 



6d home care OE the SICK 

affected part They shoukl l)e changed at least every 
two hours, 
starch Starch poultices are used in certain skin diseases. 

Poultice q^|-j^. starch is mixed with a little cold water, then 
enough hoiling water added to make a thick paste. 
It is hoiled, spread and applied in the same manner as 
the flaxseed. 

The cotton jacket or "dry poultice" is made by 
lacking a layer of non-absorbent cotton or wadding 
between two pieces of cheesecloth, shaped for the 
chest, and is excellent to keep on for a few days after 
other poultices have been discontinued. 

Sinapisms relieve ])ain through the agency of the 
mustard which, by irritating the sensory nerves, causes 
the dilatation of the su])erficial blood vessels — under 
the point of application — and the consequent lessening 
of the congestion in the inflamed tissue. Sinapisms 
are made of flour, mustard, and tepid water, in vary- 
ing ])roportions. Those for a man are generally made 
one ])art mustard to four of flour ; for a woman one 
])art nuistard to six of l]our ; for a child one part 
mustard to ten of flour. The water used should always 
be tepid ; cold water feels uncomfortable to the pa- 
tient, while hot destroys the virtue of the mustard. 
The flour and mustard are first mixed well together, 
care being taken to crush all lumps of mustard ; enough 
water is then slowly added to make a thick paste, 
which is spread on muslin and covered with gauze. 
The sinapism is generally left on from fifteen to 



652 



FOMENTATIONS 



6i 



twenty minutes, Init it must be watched carefully, and 
removed as soon as the surface of the skin is well 
reddened, as otherwise it will blister. After the re- 
moval of the sinapism the skin must be washed, and 
if a little vaseline be rubbed on, this will allay the 
irritation. 

The usual method of applying fomentations is to 
have two pieces of flannel in use, applying them alter- 
nately and changing every three minutes for twenty 
minutes. The easiest way is to have the water boiling 
over an alcohol or gas lamp near the bedside. 

Put two layers of coarse, soft flannel (an old blanket 
is good) in the center of a towel ; dip this into boiling 
water, wring it out by twisting the ends of the towel, 
give the flannel a quick shake, and apply the flannel ; 
cover with oiled muslin or oiled paper. 

As hot applications promote suppuration there are 
conditions when their use is contra-indicated and cold 
applications are ordered. 

The most effectual way of applying continuous cold 
is by means of the ice cap. The pieces of ice put into 
the cap should be about the size of a walnut ; it should 
never be more than half filled, and the air should be 
expelled before putting on the cover. Salt is some- 
times mixed with the ice to intensify the cold. The 
cap should be tied in an old handkerchief or piece of 
gauze to prevent the rubber from coming next the skin, 
as the extreme cold is very irritating, and may even 
produce frost bites. 



Fomentations 



Cold 
Applications 



653 



62 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Ice Caps When ice caps arc being- used all the ice must not 

be allowed to melt before the cap is refilled, as the 
reaction caused by the resulting- change of temperature 
is very injurious, especially if there is any inflamma- 
tion. 





ICE CAPS 

Compresses For the application of cold to the head, old hand- 

kerchiefs or pieces of soft gauze can be used, folded 
so that they will come down well over the temples, but 
not touch the pillow. They must not be wide enough 
to wet the hair, or come far down over the eyes. Com- 
presses should not be made too wet. The best scheme 
is to have a piece of ice in a basin, and two compresses, 
then while one is on the forehead the other can remain 
rolled round the ice. 

Compresses for the eye should be small and very 
light. If both eyes need the compresses two separate 
ones should be used. If only one eye is afifected be 
careful that the compress on it does not touch the 
other, lest it should become infected. If gauze is used 
for compresses always turn the ends in, that the 
ravellings may not annoy the patient. 



654 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK. 

PARTI. 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
first sheet of the test. Use a lig"ht g-rade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
the lesson paper . Use your own words, so that your in- 
structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry 
out the directions given in the text, if possible, before answer- 
ing the questions. 

1. What is expected of the nurse? 

2. Give the period of incubation, first symptoms, 

and time required for isolation for: (a) 
Mumps, (b) Measles, (c) Smallpox, (d) 
Scarlet fever, (e) Diphtheria, 

3. What are the causes of cholera infantum? 

Symptoms? What are the symptoms of in- 
testinal obstruction ? 

4. What are the most common causes of convul- 

sions in children ? What should be done ? 

5. What are the primary symptoms of typhoid 

fever? Of pneumonia? Of meningitis? 

6. Wliat is the difference between false croup and 

true croup in symptoms, danger, and treat- 
ment ? 

7. Describe the ideal sick room. 

8. How should the sweeping and dusting be done? 

How prepare for the night? 

9. Why is ventilation in the sick room important? 

Describe different methods. 
10. Make the bed as explained in the lesson and then 
describe the process. 



655 



HOME CARE OE THE SICK 

11. Endeavor to change the bedclothes with a per- 

son in bed and report your success. 

12. The points suggested in the section on the ''Care 

of the Patient" are all essential. What ones 
might you neglect if you had no experience? 

13. What must be guarded against in lifting and 

moving a helpless patient ? 

14. How would you change a patient from one bed 

to another? 

15. What are bed sores and how can they be guarded 

against ? 

16. How would you wash the hair? 

17. Describe the process of giving a bath in bed. 

18. How can the heat of the blood be found? Why 

is it important? 

19. How would you count the pulse? 

20. Mention some of the points in a patient's condi- 

tion that should be noted and recorded ? 

21. What rules should be observed in giving medi- 

cines ? 

22. What are the different kinds of enemata? How 

given ? 

23. What devices can be tried before catheterization 

is attempted ? 

24. How is a linseed poultice made and applied ? 

25. What is a sinapism? A fomentation? 

26. How is cold applied to relieve pain? 

27. Do you understand everything in this lesson? 

What questions occur to you? 

Note.— After completing the test sign your full name. 



656 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

PART II 



CONTAGION; DISINFECTION— NUHSING IN CONTA- 
GIOUS DISEASES 

We have learned in our study of Household Bac- 
teriology that nearly all diseases, especially those com- 
ing under the head of infectious and contagious, are 
caused by certain species of bacteria. 

If we would be immune from these diseases, then 
we must do everything in our power to exclude these 
germs. Cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh air, 
are the first requisites for their exclusion ; and, wher 
disease has entered, proper isolation and disinfection to 
prevent their spread. 

By disinfection we mean destruction of the bacteria 
by use of certain chemicals or heat. Heat, when it 
can be used, is always the surest and quickest method. 
The rules for disinfection, or sterilizing by heat, will 
be given under the head of ''Surgical Operations at 
Home." 

The disinfectants most commonly used in illness 
are bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, for the hands and 
utensils, and carbolic acid, 1-20, for the clothes, instru- 
ments, etc. Bichloride is the stronger disinfectant, 
but as it discolors clothes and instruments it should 
not be used for them. 



Disinfection 



657 



Bichloride 
of Mercury 



Carbolic 
Acid 



Infection 

and 

Contagion 



64 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

MAKING DISINFECTANT SOLUTIONS 

A bottle of blue bichloride tablets can be bought at 
any chemist's ; this is the safest form to use it in the 
home, as the tablets make a blue solution. The bi- 
chloride is perfectly odorless, and if the clear, uncol- 
ored solution were used it might be mistaken for 
water. As this is a very strong poison the tablets 
should be kept always under lock and key, and out of 
the reach of children. It is well to have a bottle 
of tablets in the house at all times, to use in case of 
cuts, etc. They contain salt, which is aUvays required 
in making bichloride solution. 

To make bichloride solution dissolve one tablet in 
a quart of hot water. 

When a large quantity of carbolic acid solution 
will be required continually, it is cheaper to buy the 
95 per cent solution, which can be reduced as needed 
to the required strength. To make five pints of 1-20, 
mix four ounces of the 95 per cent carbolic with five 
pints of boiling water and shake the bottle well. 

As 95 per cent carbolic is not only a strong poison, 
but also very corrosive to the skin, so be careful not to 
spill even a drop on your hands, but if you should, 
wash the spot immediately with alcohol or warm w^ater 
and soap. 

An infectious disease is not always a contagious 
one; that is, .it cannot be contracted by being in the 
same room with the patient, but it is transmittable 
by some intermediate means of communication. 



658 



CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 



65 



Tuberculosis is not contracted by coming in contact 
with a patient suffering from that disease, but by 
inhaling dust containing the germs derived from the 
dried sputa of some consumptive person. 

The germs of typhoid fever are disseminated when 
the stools and other excreta of the patient are not 
I)roperly disinfected by those in charge. 

It is not necessary to isolate patients suffering from 
diseases of this kind, but it is necessary to disinfect, 
according to the nature of the infection; thus, know- 
ing that the germ of typhoid fever is in the stools, 
and to some extent in the urine, the stools and urine 
must always be disinfected by covering with bichloride, 
I -1000, and letting stand half an hour before empty- 
ing. The bed pan must be well washed and disin- 
fected afterward. It is also a wise precaution to 
disinfect the bed-clothes by soaking in carbolic, 1-20, 
for twelve hours, and then boiling; also to keep uten- 
sils and dishes used for the patient separate, boiling 
them before they are again mixed with the household 
supply. 

Consumption, or tuberculosis of the lungs, is per- 
haps the most dreaded disease of the present day. 
There are more deaths from it than from any other, 
except in times of epidemic. The sputum of patients 
suffering from this disease contains many millions of 
the bacilli. If this is deposited in places where it is 
allowed to dry and become pulverized, it is a source of 
danger to others. The sputum must, therefore, be 
disinfected. 



Disinfection 

Without 

Isolation 



Consumption 



659 



66 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Patients suffering from this disease should be pro- 
vided with sanitary cups. The best for this purpose 
are made of prepared paper and are 
very cheap. These should be burnt 
after being in use for twelve hours 
at most. If these cannot be obtained, 
porcelain ones with covers may be 
used, but bichloride or carbolic must 
always remain in the cup, and it 
should be emptied and scalded frequently. The patient 
should not use ordinary handkerchiefs, but gauze or 
Japanese paper, which should be burnt. All clothing 




Sanitary Cup. 




Paper Sanitary Cup. 



and bedding soiled by the sputa should be disinfected 
in the usual manner, and the sufferer should wash 
and disinfect the hands frequently. 

Perfect cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh 



660 



CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 



67 



air, and nourishing food are the most important points 
in the modern treatment of consumption. Special care 
should be taken by consumptives to smother every 
cough when close to other people. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 

Measles, scarlet fever, smallpox and diphtheria are 
not only infectious but also contagious, and can be 
taken by touching the person or anything that has 
come in contact with the patient. 

Anyone who has been in the room with a patient 
suffering from any one of these diseases can scatter 
the germs far and wide ; this must be remembered, 
especially by those who do the nursing. It is an abso- 
lute necessity for them to go out every day, but before 
doing so they should change all their clothes, and wash 
face and hands with bichloride, i-iooo. As it would 
be impossible to wash the hair every time, it should 
be covered by a cap, while on duty. Even when all 
these precautions have been taken, shops, theaters, and 
street cars should be avoided. 

The rules of isolation are these : 

(i) The patient should be removed to a room as 
remote as possible from the rest of the house. 

(2) No one should be allowed to enter the room 
except the physicians and attendants. 

(3) Long-sleeved aprons and caps which will cover 
the hair should be worn by physicians and attendants 
while in the room. (These can be made of cheap 
muslin.) 



The Spreading 
of Germs 



Rules of 
Isolation 



661 



of Clothes 



68 UOMli CAR Li ()!• '1 illl SICK 

(4) A soliiti(jn of bichloride, 1-1000, should be 
kej)! by the wasli l)asin for the disinfection of hands, 
and Ihcy should be disinfected every time after t(juch- 
in^" or doin^;" anythinj^ for the ])atient. hOr ])r()|)er 
isolation there should be two rooms, — the wash stand, 
j^owns, disinfectants, etc., beini:;- kept in the outer 
room. 
Disinfection (s) A foot tul) or otlicr rcceptaclc containini>- car- 

bolic, 1-20, should be ])laced near the bedside when 
the clothes are about to be chanj^ed, and they should 
])e put immediately into this, remainini^;" there well 
covered for twenty-four hours. They should, even 
then, be l)oiled before beini:!;" washed. 

(6) The advice j^iven earlier as to the furnishing 
and care of the sick-room is especially applicable in 
cases of conta^"i(Xis diseases. When dustini;, the 
duster should be dampened in 1-40 carl)olic. As bare 
iloors are apt to be noisy, a small r\\^ or two may be 
retained, but they should be old ones, as they ouc^ht 
to be burned at the termination of the disease. They 
must not be shaken, as at other times, but kept well 
dusti'd with the damp duster. 

(7) It is ^vell t(^ keep sheets, w rmii^" out in car- 
l)olic, 1-20, both between the two rooms set apart for 
the nursini;- and at the entrance of tlie outer room. 
The door of the latter nnist be kept closed. 

(8) The dishes .-md utensils used l)y the patient 
;iiid .iltend.-mls must not hv removed from the room; 
they must be washed there, the i)atient's always being" 



Dishes 

and 

Utensils 



662 



CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 



69 



washed and kept separate. When food is brought it 
should be left at the door of the outer room. The 
attendant, first taking off her cap and apron and disin- 
fecting her hands, should remove the food from those 
dishes to the ones she has in the room; the others 
should be removed immediately. 

(9) Whenever it can be managed the isolated 
rooms should be in close connection with a bath-room, 
which should be set apart for the use of the inmates 
of the sick-room. When this is impossible the attend- 
ant must, when it is necessary to go there, first remove 
her cap and apron and disinfect her hands. When her 
object is to empty the slop jar or bed pan they should 
be completely covered with a large towel wrung out in 
carbolic. 

(10) The bed pan should always have bichloride, 
I -1000, in the bottom, and after use more of the same 
solution should be added. It should stand thus for 
half an hour before being emptied. When there is no 
separate bath-room a tightly covered box nailed on the 
outside window sill of the outer room will be found 
convenient to hold the bed pan, while its contents are 
being disinfected. 

Besides the general rules for disinfection there are 
in some contagious diseases special rules, incidental to 
the nature of the disease. 

In scarlet fever the greatest danger of infection lies 
in the dissemination of the skin, while it is peeling. 
To prevent this the patient should be rubbed all over, 



Separate 
Bath Rooiij 



Special 
Rules 



663 



70 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



night and morning, with carboHzed vaseline or boric 
ointment. 

In diphtheria the most virulent contagion is in the 
expectoration, especially when the membrane loosens. 
Soft gauze should be used instead of handkerchiefs, 
and if there is no grate in the room a pan must be at 
hand, in which these can be burnt immediately after 
use. 

DISINFECTION AT THE TERMINATION OF THE DISEASE 



Time of 
Quarantine 



I)isinfecting 
the Patient 



Even after the fever has abated it is necessary to 
keep the patient isolated, or "in quarantine," as it is 
called, for some days. A rough estimate of the time 
required for quarantine in the dififerent diseases is 
given in the table in the first section, but the doctor 
should always be the one to decide when it may be 
raised, as circumstances or complications may arise 
which might make it allowable to shorten or neces- 
sary to lengthen the time. 

When the doctor does allow the patient to be moved, 
a warm cleansing bath (including the washing of the 
hair) must be given. This is followed by a bichloride 
bath, i-iooo, and an alcohol rub. The patient is then 
wrapped in a clean sheet and taken to a different 
room, where fresh clothes which have not been in the 
sick-room are put on. Those who have done the nurs- 
ing must go through the same procedure. 



664 



CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 71 

THE DISINFECTION OF THE ROOM AND ITS CONTENTS 

The use of sulphur fumes as a disinfectant has been 
proved to be practically useless, and formaldehyde has 
almost entirely replaced it. The easiest form of using 
this is the 'Ture Formaldehyde Gas" put up by Sea- 
bury & Johnson. It can be procured at most drug- 
gists. In appearance it looks like a stone, cone shaped. 
There are two sizes ; the smaller, 2 inches square, will 
disinfect a room 500 cubic feet, and the larger one, 
1000 to 1500 cubic feet. Close the windows, pasting 
paper over all the cracks ; pull down the blinds ; open 
cupboards, drawers, bundles, etc., that everything may 
be exposed to the fumes of the gas ; place the fumi- 
gator on the top of an inverted pail — it must not be too 
near the floor, or it may scorch it — set fire to the top 
of it, and leave the room; lock the door and paste up 
the cracks and key hole. 

Leave the room thus for five or six hours, then 
open all the windows, if possible allowing them to 
remain open for twelve hours. 

Books and toys used in the sick-room should be 
burned, as they are hard to disinfect. 

Unless the mattress can be baked it should be 
opened, so that the formaldehyde can penetrate 
through to its center. In all large cities there are bake 
houses where such things may be sent for disinfection 
at comparatively small cost. They should be carefully 
wrapped up. 



Disinfecting 
with Formalde 
hyde 



The 
Mattress 



665 



iOisinfection 



72 HOME CARE 01' THE SICK 

PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THOSE NURSING 
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 

(i) Take sufficient sleep and rest; never in the 
patient's room. It is when the muscles are relaxed, 
as they are when resting, that the greatest danger of 
infection comes. 

(2) A daily walk in the fresh air is necessar}'. 

(3) A daily hath ; change of all clothing at least 
three times a week. The clothing must he disinfected. 

(4) When working over the patient never stoop 
so that you inhale her hreath. Never kiss your pa- 
tient. 

Personal (s) Never put your hands to your face, especially 

your mouth or eyes, without first disinfecting them. 

(6) Disinfect your IkjkIs frequently in hichloridc 
of mercury, i-iooo. Keej) the nails short and scrupu- 
lously clean. When washing the hands w^ash the 
soap ofif before ])utting tliem into l)ichloridc, or they 
will soon become sore. 

(7) Before meals wash and disinfect your hands 
well, rinse your mouth with boric acid solution or 
listerine. Never eat in the patient's room. 

(8) When irrigating a diphtheria patient's throat 
tie a handkerchief over your mouth, and wear glasses 
to protect the eyes. 

The nursing in infectious and contagious diseases 
is the same as in all other cases of fever. While the 
temperature is high the ])atient should he kept in the 
recumbent position to avoid strain upon the heart. 



666 



SUKdlCAL oriiKATIONS 



73 



In Ivjjlioid this position is particular!)' ncccssar}', as 
hemorrhage from the intestines is hable to occur if it 
is not strictly adhered to. 

Nourishment and medication must be given exactly 
as ordered. When the doctor orders fluids give noth- 
ing solid; many a life, especially after ty])hoid, has 
been lost by so doing. 

Except when the patient is nauseated, unless con- 
trary to orders, give i)lenty of water, every two hours 
at least. See that the patient drinks it slowly. 

Remember the rules already given about the care of 
the mouth, especially with typhoid patients. Vaseline 
applied to parched lips gives relief. 

In measles and scarlet fever the eyes are apt to be 
affected, so the room should be kept darker than in 
other cases, and the eyes should be washed with boric 
acid, always 1)athing fnjni the inner angle outward. 

In all diseases where the skin is not working ])rop- 
erly, as in measles, scarlet and other eruptive fevers, 
be especially observant of the urine as various kidney 
complications are liable to ensue. 

11iere is little danger of the patient catching cold 
while the temperature is high, but when it begins to 
lower be doubly careful. 

SURGICAL OPERATIONS AT HOME* 

For twenty-four hours previous to operation the 

patient should be given broths every two hours, but 

neither milk nor solid food. A cathartic is given, if 

possible, thirty hours prior to operation, and repeated 

*This section is optional. 



Nourishment 



Care of 
the Eyes 



667 



74 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

in six hours ; a soap suds enema is given three hours 
after the first cathartic, and repeated twelve hours 
before operation. A bath is also given the afternoon 
before, and after the bath the field of operation is 
Preparation shaved, then thoroughly cleansed with green soap, 
for an and a compress wet with green soap solution, 25 per 
cent to 50 per cent, applied (the liquid green soap 
which is used for this purpose can be obtained at any 
druggist's) ; this is covered with a protector — oil mus- 
lin or oil paper — and left on from three to six hours, as 
the skin will bear. When removed, the surface is 
washed in the following order, with green soap, ether, 
alcohol, and solution bichloride of mercury, i-iooo; a 
compress wet in the latter is applied covered with a 
protector, and left on till an hour before operation, 
when the process is repeated and the fresh bichloride 
compress is left on till the doctor removes it, on the 
operating table, after the patient is under the influ- 
ence of the anaesthetic ; then he re-scrubs it, and the 
ether, alcohol, and bichloride must be ready for him 
to use. All these precautions are taken to kill or re- 
move every bacterium or spore. 

For a vaginal operation the rules for diet, catharsis, 
enemata and bathing are the same as for any other. 
In addition a green soap douche is given on the pre- 
ceding day, followed by one of bichloride of mercury, 
1-5000. The vulva is then covered with a pad wet in 
solution of bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, until two 
hours before operation, when another bichloride douche 



668 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS 



73 



is given, the parts cleansed and a fresh bichloride pad 
applied. 

Just before the anaesthetic is given, the patient 
should void urine. If she has false teeth they should 
be removed. 

The Room. In the choice of the room the light is 
one of the first considerations, a good light being a 
positive necessity. If possible the operation should 
take place in a different room from the one the patient 
is occupying beforehand. Remove rugs, carpets, all 
unnecessary furniture, curtains and draperies. A piece 
of cheesecloth tacked across the lower sash of the 
windows will keep the light from being too glaring 
and obstruct the view from outside. 

The day before the operation the walls should be 
dusted, especially the cornices and mouldings; the 
floor should be scrubbed if possible, or at least wiped 
with a damp cloth and it should be washed over again 
the morning of operation after the furniture is in 
place. 

If the patient is to remain in the room after the 
operation, have the bed as nearly in the position it is to 
occupy later as possible, but out of the way. 

Protect the floor under and around the operating 
table with several thicknesses of paper, covered with a 
sheet tacked down at the corners. 

A kitchen table covered w4th a couple of old blankets 
protected by a rubber pinned or tacked under the 
table will answer for the operating table. Three small 



The Room 



Operating 
Table 



669 



76 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

tables should be at hand, protected with papers, cov- 
ered with large sterile towels. On one table, con- 
venient to his right hand, the surgeon will need his 
instruments. On the second table have three bowls 
which have been well washed first with soap' and hot 
water, then bichloride, i-iooo. The inside of the 
bowls should not be dried. One bowl is intended to 
hold the solution for the disinfection of the surgeon's 
and his assistant's hands, the other two for washing 
the sponges. The third table is required for the 
dressings and sterile towels. The former, the doctor 
will provide or tell you where to get them. Very 
reliable sterile dressings are now put up by Ellwood 
Dressings Lee, and can be procured at any drug store. They 
are really better than anything that can be prepared 
without a sterilizer. If it is impossible to obtain these, 
the dressings should be prepared in the same manner 
as the towels, namely, rolled in bundles not more than 
9 inches square (or the heat will not penetrate) and 
steamed in the clothes boiler for at least one hour. 
If there is no tray to keep them out of the water a 
hammock of gauze will answer the purpose. They are 
then dried in the oven, which must not be hot enough 
to scorch them. 

At least a dozen and a half towels will be required. 
The surgeon will bring the instruments and anaesthetic. 
If chloroform is administered, some vaseline will be 
required to grease the patient's face. 



sterile 



670 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS 



77 



An ether cone can be made out of paper, covered 
with a towel. 

An irrigator or douche bag must be at hand for the 
irrigation. This should be sterilized by boiling for five 
minutes, as are also the surgical instruments. 

There must be plenty of sterilized water prepared, 
six gallons at least, two gallons 
of which must be boiled long 
enough beforehand to be cold. 
This must be kept tightly cov- 
ered after it is boiled, or it will 
not remain sterile. Water must 
boil at least thirty minutes to be 
properly sterilized. 

Bichloride, carbolic and salt 
solutions may be needed and 
must be at hand, as well as two 
sterile pitchers, a pus basin, a 
chair, a blanket or two to cover the patient, two rub- 
bers to protect the blanket, a slop jar, hypodermic 
syringe, and stimulants — the doctor will give definite 
instructions regarding the last. 

The bed is made according to the directions already 
given for bedmaking, with the exception that no pillow 
will be required as the patient's head must be kept low. 
Instead, a small rubber covered by a towel is desirable 
to protect the bed if the patient is nauseated. A 
blanket is put over the patient, before the upper sheet ; 
hot water bottles should be in the bed all the time she 




Ether "Cone, made from stiff 

paper, covered with 

a towel. 



Sterilized 
Water 



The Bed 



671 



sterilizing: 
the Hands 



78 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



is on the table ; a couple of towels and pus basin 
should be on a table near the bed in case of nausea, 
also small pieces of gauze to wipe the mucus out of 
the mouth, and a wedge-shaped piece of wood to put 
between the teeth if they become clenched. 

If necessary to assist the surgeon during the opera- 
tion, scrub the hands for ten minutes with hot water 
and soap, using a new stiff nail brush which has been 



After the 
Operation 




PORCELAIN BED PAN 

soaked in carbolic, 1-20. Be particularly careful of the 
finger nails, which should be cut very short. After 
scrubbing, the hands should be soaked in bichloride, 
I -1000. 

Nobody, whose hands have not been so treated, 
must touch the dressings or instruments, and after 
washing nothing but the sterile things must be touched. 

When the operation is over, if the patient's night- 
gown is wet it must be changed. She is then covered 
with a warmed blanket, and put into bed. She should 
lie on her back without pillows and be kept very quiet. 



672 



SURGICAL OPERATIONS 



79 



If she vomits, hold her head on one side to prevent 
strangulation. 

Washing the mouth out, as previously directed, will 
help to relieve the thirst which is generally intense 
after an anaesthetic. 

After a few hours either crushed ice or very hot 
water, in teaspoon doses, may be given. 




Bed Pan, '■'Eureka" Pattern 

The pulse must be watched carefully, and if its rate 
increases should be reported to the doctor, as this, 
together v/ith pallor, restlessness, longing for fresh air, 
sighing respiration, and fall of temperature is a sign 
of hemorrhage. As the hemorrhage does not always 
show through the dressing these signs must be watched 
for. 

For treatment of hemorrhage see the section on 
"Emergencies." As the after treatment depends alto- 
gether on the nature of the operation, and subsequent 
condition of the patient, no rules for it can be given 
here further than to emphasize the fact that the first 
requisite for success in surgical work is perfect clean- 
liness. The gauze used for dressing the wound after 
the operation, the instruments and the hands of those 



The Pulsfc 



Perfect 
Cleanlinebs 



673 



8o HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

touching these things, must always be as carefull}' 
s.teriHzed for the dressing as for the operation. 

The diet, Hke the treatment, will depend upon cir- 
cumstances. For the first day or two the patient is 
generally on fluid diet, and care must be taken thai: it 
is given slowly and in small quantities, but as soon as 
possible plenty of nourishing food should be given to 
build up the system. 

OBSTETRICS 

The average duration of pregnancy is 280 days. 
The most accurate way of calculating the probable date 
of confinement is by counting back three months from 
the date of the cessation of the last menses and adding 
seven days. 
Preliminary The expectant mother should place herself under 

the doctor's care in the early stages of pregnancy, as 
not only her own but the infant's after health depends 
largely on the care the mother takes of herself at this 
time. The principal rules of hygiene to be followed 
are: 

1. Daily exercise in the open air. 

2. At least eight hours' sleep out of twenty-four. 

3. A daily bath, a sponge bath if the tub bath is 
too exhausting. A brisk rub after the bath will cause 
a good reaction. 

4. The bowels should be moved daily, with mild 
cathartics if necessary. 



Care 



674 



OBSTETRICS 8i 

5. The urine must be carefully watched and any 
abnormality reported to the doctor. Frequent speci- 
mens should also be sent him, as there may be danger 
of serious kidney troubles. 

6. Freedom from excitement, worry, hurry, and 
too heavy manual labor. 

7. The clothing should be worn loose enough to 
allow of free circulation. 

8. A nourishing, but not too stimulating diet . 
should be adhered to. 

9. The nipples require attention, especially during 
the last two months, and should be washed twice daily 
with boric acid solution and treated with fresh cocoa 
butter or albolene. 

What to provide: ^ ,^ 

^ For the 

1. Two large rubber sheets. Mother 

2. If possible, a Kelly Pad, if not, make an obstet- 
rical pad, consisting of four thicknesses of cotton wad- 
ding, covered with a layer of absorbent cotton, the 
whole encased in absorbent gauze and tacked to keep 
the cotton in place. This pad should be three-quarters 
of a yard square. 

3. Two dozen pads for dressings, half a yard long, 
ten inches wide and two inches thick, made of the 
same materials. 

4. Two dozen smaller pads. 

5. Five boxes of sterile gauze (each containing one 
yard of gauze), to be used both for the mother's 
dressing and to cover the babv's cord. 



675 



82 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



6. One roll of adhesive plaster. 

7. Six abdominal binders of unbleached muslin. 

8. Six breast binders of unbleached muslin. 

9. One pair long stockings made of flannel or an 
old blanket. 

10. Two dozen paper bags in which soiled dress- 
ings can be put and burnt. 

11. At least two hot water bottles. 




KELLEY PAD. 

12. Red pan — "Perfection" is the best. 

13. Douche pan. 

14. Douche can or new fountain syringe bag. 

15. Two glass douche nozzles. 

16. Two glass catheters. 

17. One agate basin to boil nozzles and catheters in. 

18. Two large agate pitchers in which water can 
be sterilized, solutions made, etc. 

19. Clinical, room, and hath thermometers. 

20. One bottle carbolic, 4 per cent. 

21. One bottle Lysol. 



676 



For the 



OBSTETRICS 83 

22. One bottle bichloride tablets. 

23. New nail brush and fresh cake of soap for the 
doctor's use. 

For the baby: 

1. A tube of sterile tape. ^^.by 

2. A rubber sheet, or, preferably, a nursery cloth 
to protect the crib mattress. 

3. Talcum powder. 

4. Sweet oil or sterile vaseline. 

5. Pure castile soap (never use perfumed soap of 
any kind). 

6. Bath tub — good rubber ones are the best. 

7. Old table linen makes excellent towels and wash 
cloths for the baby. 

8. A large square of soft, thick flannel to roll baby 
in after it is greased. 

9. Basket containing sewing materials and safety 
pins. 

10. Crib and bedding. 

11. Scales to weigh the baby in are very desirable. 

12. A rubber or padded lap protector for the at- 
tendant to use while bathing the baby. 

13. A large flannel apron for the same purpose. 
The latter is especially desirable as the baby can be 
rolled in it, when taken from the bath. 

14. Baby's clothing: Six flannel bands, not 
hemmed, 6 inches wide, three-quarters of a yard long. for Baby 
Four knitted or woven shirts. Six flannel petticoats. 
Six white petticoats ; these should all be made without 



Clothing 



677 



84 



HOME CARE Of THE SICK 



Ihe Bed 



Doctor's 
Table 



Nurse's 
Table 



bands, and the fastening on the shoulders, running a 
draw tape through the hem of the flannel petticoat, 
will keep the baby's feet warm without confining them. 
Six slips for night wear. Six dresses. Diapers, two 
sizes, eighteen and twenty-two inches square. 

As in other cases of sickness, the room should be as 
large, light, and airy as possible, scrupulously clean, 
and have no superfluous furniture. 

In this instance the foot of the bed should be to- 
wards the light. It should be made as shown in the 
section on bed-making, with the addition of a second 
rubber covered with a clean sheet, and either a rubber 
Kelly pad or an obstetrical pad (made as already 
described). 

The furniture and floor should be protected in the 
same manner as they are for operations. 

Besides the bed a table for the doctor, wash stand, 
nurse's table, extra table or bureau and chair will be 
required. See that there is a hook on which to hang 
the douche bag. 

On the wash stand have hot and cold water, soap, 
nail brush, scissors, and nail cleaner, towels, and bowl 
of bichloride, i-iooo. 

On the doctor's table, bowl of bichloride, 1-3000, 
with towels and sponges in it ; bowl of lysol, sterile 
towels, sterile douche tip, also rubber and glass 
catheter. 

.On the nurse's table have (for baby) sterile scis- 
sors and tape wipes in boric acid (these consist of 



678 



OBSTETRICS 85 

small squares of gauze), two large squares of gauze 
to put over the baby's mouth if necessary to blow into 
it, soft flannel square to wrap baby in, dressing for 
cord as ordered by the doctor. 

For the mother — chloroform, mask, pus basin, ster- 
ile dressing and pads. Under the table the douche pan 
(which has been washed in bichloride and- kept cov- 
ered with towel, wrung out in same), slop pail and 
basin, paper bags for soiled dressings and placenta, 
foot tub, hot and cold water. 

On the bureau — room, bath and clinical thermom- 
eters ; salt, vinegar, alcohol, whisky, hypodermic 
syringe, binders, pins, hot water bag, tray and alcohol 
lamp. 

The signs of beginning labor are pains in the lower 
part of the abdomen and back, occurring at regular Signs 
intervals, about once every half hour, and a discharge 
of mucus tinged with blood from the vagina. 

True pains can be distinguished from false by plac- 
ing the hand over the lower part of the abdomen ; in 
true pains the contractions of the uterus are to be 
readily felt through the abdominal wall. As the labor 
advances the pains grow more severe and the intervals 
shorter. The first stage of labor consists in the dila- 
tion of the uterus, and ends when the membranes have 
ruptured and the uterus is completely dilated. 

The second stage or stage of expulsion ends when 
the child is born. 



First 



679 



86 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

The third stage ends when the placenta is expressed 
and the uterus contracted to the size of a closed hand. 

At the beginning of the first stage, the patient 
should have a bath, and her hair braided in two 
braids. Her bowels are emptied by the giving of a 
soap suds enema. After this the external parts are 
washed with bichloride solution, 1-5000, and a pad 
wet with bichloride solution, i-ioooo, or boric acid 
applied. She is as a rule allowed t© walk around 
the room during the first stage, which may last from 
ten to twelve hours, and even longer. 

She is best clad at this time in a night gown, warm 
wrapper, and long stockings made of flannel or an old 
blanket, coming well up over the thigh. 

Milk and broths should be given every two hours ; 
alcohol and other stimulants must be withheld. 

The patient must be instructed not to bear down 
during the pains of this stage, and to sit or lie down 
v.'hen a pain occurs. 
^^^ During the second stage the patient must be kept 

^stage strictly in bed. The wrapper is removed and a short 
dressing sack put on in its place, the night gown is 
tied up under the arms, and with it a sheet, the end 
of which comes down over the legs covering the 
blanket stockings, which are left on ; it can be folded 
up in the center when necessary. 

The patient usually lies on her back. A strong band 
of muslin around the foot of the bed, with the ends so 
that she can hold them to pull on, will help the patient 
during pains. 



680 



OBSTETRICS 87 

The attendant's hands must be well scrubbed and 
disinfected with bichloride, i-iooo, that she may be 
ready to help the doctor. 

If the doctor does not arrive in time, the attendant, 
taking all antiseptic precautions, must place her hand 
against the head as soon as it appears and hold it 
back during the pains, thus preventing too rapid 
descent. When the head is delivered insert the finger 
into the passage to see if the cord be around the neck, 
if so, pull it carefully over the head. The right hand 
supports the child as it comes, and the other is placed 
on the abdomen and pressed firmly but gently down- 
ward till the child is expelled. One hand must be held 
over the uterus from this time until at least half an 
hour after the placenta is expelled. 

Place the child on its right side between the mother's ^^^ ^^ 
thighs, wipe out its eyes and mouth with swabs wet *^® ^^^^^ 
in boric acid ; place gauze over the mouth and blow 
into it ; if it does not cry, slap it on the back and chest ; 
if the color does not improve the cord will have to be 
tied and cut immediately (it is generally better to wait 
five minutes before doing this) and the child plunged 
into a hot bath. It is rarely necessary to do this, how- 
ever. The cord should be tied tightly with the sterile 
tape about an inch and a half from the navel, and 
again an inch further on; it is then cut (with sterile 
scissors) between the two knots. The baby is rubbed 
with vaseline or olive oil, rolled in the flannel square, 
and a warmed blanket, then put in its crib with at least 



681 



88 



HOME CARE 01' THE SICK 



The 
Third 
Stage 



one hot water bottle until the mother is attended to. 
The placenta is generally expressed about fifteen or 
twenty minutes after the birth of the child ; but even 
if it take longer, the cord should not be pulled upon — 
it is better to gently manipulate the abdomen above 
the uterus, and continue doing this very gently with 
one hand as the placenta comes out, while with the 
other hand twist slowly to aid its coming. Even after 





The 
Binder 



KNDS OF THE Y UKEAST BINDER 

the placenta is expressed, the hand must remain 
pressed downward over the uterus iintil it feels hard 
and firm. An assistant can in the meantime be wash- 
ing the i)atient with bichloride, 1-2000, and removing 
the soiled linen. When the uterus is firm and hard a 
binder should be api)lied, a dressing of sterile gauze 
and a pad being first placed over the vulva ; this is 
afterward j^inned on to the binder to keep it in place. 
11ie binder is best made of unbleached muslin. One 
for a medium size woman should be a yard and a 



682 



OBSTETRICS 



89 



quarter long- and half a yard wide. It should, when 
pinned in place, extend from the border of the ribs 
to below the prominence of the hips, and should be 
made to fit the contour of the body by taking in darts 
over the hips on the upper and lower edges. 

\ l)inder is also used to make compression upon 
the breasts. There arc a variety of these, but the Y 



Y Breast 
Binder 




Y BREAST BINDER (a) AND ABDOMINAL 
BINDER (h) IN PLACE 

breast binder originally used in the l>oston Lying-in 
Hospital is perhaps the easiest one to manage, and 
has the advantage of leaving the nipples exposed. A 
l)andage shaped like a T is made by folding muslin 
lengthwise and pinning it at right angles to another 
strij) folded in the same way. 'J1ie T is then made into 
a Y by making a diagonal fold in the middle of the 
cross piece and fastening the middle of the plait with 
safety pins. 

To api)ly, dust the surface of breasts with powder, 
draw base of Y beneath the patient's back until apex 



683 



90 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

of the fork is external to the outer edge of breast. 
Lift breasts upward and toward each other. Draw 
lower arm of fork snugly across chest beneath breasts, 
the inferior border of this arm extending at least one 
inch below margin of breasts-; the end of arm is 
pinned to end of strap, which has been passed beneath 
back ; the lower border is pinned in the center to 
abdominal binder. The upper arm of fork is then 
drawn across chest above the breasts and pinned like 
the lower to the main strap. 
Hemorrhage Watch for the signs of hemorrhage already de- 

scribed. Should hemorrhage occur send for the doctor 
immediately ; induce contractions of the uterus by 
grasping the fundus and employing a firm but gentle 
kneading (no doctor would leave the case in your 
charge without showing you exactly how to do this). 
Elevate the foot of the bed, and give a hot douche of 
sterile water, 120° F. Sometimes astringents such as 
vinegar are added to the douche, but unless the case 
is very urgent it is best not to use it without the 
doctor's order. 

The patient must be kept quiet and on her back for 
the first six or seven hours, afterward she can turn on 
her side but should not sit up for at least five days. 
She is generally allowed to sit up on fourteenth day, 
if all discharge has ceased. In no case should the 
usual routine of life be resumed under four weeks. 

The diet is usually liquid for the first twenty-four 
hours, after which all symptoms being normal, the 
patient is allowed almost any easily digested food. 



684 



CARE OF THE CHILD 91 

The dressing and pad should be changed every two 
hours until the discharge diminishes, later every three 
to five, as the case demands. After the third day it is 
usually necessary to change it only after it has been 
removed for the requirements of the patient. These 
dressings must all be sterile and the hands disinfected 
before applying them. If douches are ordered, boil 
the douche nozzle for five minutes before and after use. 

The breasts must be washed with boric acid solution 
before and after nursing. 

THE CARE OF THE CHILD 

After its birth the child's eyes and mouth are 
cleansed with 2 per cent boric acid solution and its 
whole body greased with sweet oil or sterilized vase- 
line. It is then wrapped in warm flannel, put in a crib 
or basket, heated with hot water bags if necessary, and 
covered with a warmed blanket. It can then be left 
until the mother is cared for. Watch the cord care- 
fully as there is danger of hemorrhage. 

The first bath is often given at once, although some 
doctors prefer to have the baby rubbed with oil only Bath 
for the first few days. Before beginning have every- 
thing necessary together — a foot tub containing water, 
100° F., bath thermometer, warm, soft towels, wash 
cloth, castile soap, dusting powder, a dressing for the 
cord, boric acid solution, small squares of gauze, a 
rubber lap protector, two diapers, flannel band, shirt, 
flannel petticoat, and a simple, soft white dress. 



685 



Navel 



92 HOME CARli 01' TUB SICK 

^Vhv liead is first washed, usinj^- very little soap, 
rinsed and thorouj^hly dried ; then wash behind the 
ears, the crevices r)f llie neck, axilla, joints, and be- 
tween the bnttocks and thighs carefnlly. Only the 
part beinjT^ 1)athed shonld be exposed. The baby is 
now pnt down into llie lub and rinsed, snpportinii; the 
head and back linnly vvilh tlie left hand and arm. 
Cover the lap protector with llannel a])ron or warm 
towel and when you lift the baby out, roll this around 
it. Dry by ])attin^; use very little i)owder and only 
when it is necessary to prevent chafint;. Some doctors 
consider it better not to put llie baby in the tub until 
after the cord is off. 

The navel is now dressed 1)y cutting" a hole with 
Dressing stcrilc scissors in a ])iece of sterile jj^auze, which is 
slii)pcd over the cord and folded about it. ' The cord is 
laid toward the left side and a pad of sterile absorbent 
cotton put over it. A soft flannel binder holds the pad 
in place and must be put on firmlN' and smoothly, but 
not too tii;lilly. It is best sewn on with a few large 
stitches. After the bath- the baby should be rolled in 
warm llannel and laid on its rii;ht si<le in its crib. 
NurBinp ' bc lax'diu.i;-. 'llie Hist si X weeks tlu> baby should 

nurse every two hours duriniL;" the day and every three 
hours at ni^ht ; afterward this may be chani^ed to every 
three hours duriiii;- tlie (la\' and twice at nii;lit. These 
hours should be rij^idly adhered to. If the baby seems 
thirsty between meals a little plain water may be given. 

The baby's mouth should be washed with 2 per cent 
l)oric acid solution before and after feeding and also 
the mother's nipples. 



686 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 93 

When for any reason it is impossible for the mother 
to nurse the child, great care must be exercised in the 
])reparation of its food. First the bottle and nipples 
must be thoroughly cleansed immediately after each 
feeding by rinsing in cold water, then washing in hot 
water and soap suds and rinsing in hot water. The 
bottle is kept turned upside down and the nipples in 
a 2 per cent solution of boric acid. Both bottle and 
nipples should be boiled for five minutes twice a day. 

Every doctor has his own formula for prepared 
milk, but whatever the preparation used it is best 
pasteurized if not above suspicion. 

FOOD FOR THE SICK 

In many diseases, especially those accompanied by 
fever, the powers of digestion are much impaired. For 
this, as well as other reasons, it is necessary that all 
food given should be in a liquid form. Milk, except ^^j, 
under certain conditions, is at such times considered 
the best food, as it contains in a dilute form all the 
constituents of the solids, namely : albumen, fat, sugar, 
the inorganic salts of lime and potash, and water. 

If curds appear in the stools, or vomiting ensues, 
it shows that the milk is not being properly digested. 
This difficulty may often be overcome by diluting it 
with seltzer or other effervescent water, by the addi- 
tion of lime water or bicarbonate of soda (ten grains 
to a pint), or by peptonizing the milk. (The recipe 
for the latter will be found at the end of the section.) 



687 



94 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Amount 

and 

Frequency 



Feeding 
Cups 



A g-ood substitute for milk is white of Qgg, beaten 
to a froth, diluted with an equal quantity of water, 
and flavored with lemon juice. 

Beef tea and broths contain very little nourishment, 
and should, therefore, be given only occasionally, for 
a change. 

Patients on fluid diet should, as a rule, be given six 
ounces every two hours, or half the quantity every 
hour. Of course there are times — as after operation, 
or when the patient is nauseated — wdien less must be 
given. 

When a patient is on liquid diet it is especially im- 
perative to give her nourishment at stated times and 
regular intervals. In giving see that it is taken very 
slowly. 

As a rule, when a patient is sick enough to be on 
lluid diet it is necessary for her to maintain the re- 
cumbent position, even while drinking, and there are 
several devices to facilitate this. There is the old- 
fashioned feeder with the spout, but the drinking tube 
or ''ideal glass" are preferable. When raising the 
head slip the arm under the pillow ; take care not to 
throw the head forw^ard, and by so doing make it 
difficult to swallow. Never bring a glass to the patient 
in your hand, but on a small tray or plate, and with 
it a napkin to f(jld under the patient's chin and pre- 
vent drops soiling the sheet. 

When a patient is on milk diet her mouth should be 
washed out after every feeding, with listerine or 1)oric 



688 



Food 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 95 

acid, otherwise it will soon become coated and sore. 
Directions for doing this were given in the section 
on the care of the teeth. 

A convalescent patient should be given solid food solid 
only by degrees, beginning with the so-called soft diet, 
which includes broths, strained vegetable soups, soft 
cooked eggs, milk toast, junkets, custard, jellies, and 
raw beef sandwiches. Then comes "light diet," which 
means the addition to the "soft diet" of underdone 
steak, chops, chicken, baked potatoes, and farinaceous 
puddings. 

Pastry and all rich or highly seasoned food should 
be avoided until the patient has, in every respect, re- 
sumed her usual routine of life. 

In diseases such as rheumatism, Bright's disease, gpeciai 
diabetes, dyspepsia, etc., where fever is not the most 
important symptom, but where the effect of certain 
foods must be taken into account, a special diet is 
prescribed. As the patient's general condition must 
be considered in the prescribing of such, I think 
it wise to make only a few general remarks on the 
subject, as a great deal of harm is frequently done by 
following set rules for medication and food, by those 
who are unable to recognize symptoms contra-indi- 
cating their use. 

In many forms of febrile disease, as for instance 
tuberculosis, light diet can be given even while there 
is fever, nourishing food being a most important item 
in the treatment. 



Diet 



689 



96 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



In diabetes, sugar and starchy foods, most fruits, 
and alcoholic drinks must be avoided. Gluten bread 
should be used, and that not too fresh ; saccharine 
should be used instead of sugar for sweetening not 
only tea arid coffee, etc., but also in cooking. Fresh 
milk should not be taken, but buttermilk and koumyss 
are allowed. 

In rheumatism and gout, as in diabetes, all sweeten- 
ing should be done with saccharine, and sweets of all 
kinds are prohibited, also pastry, puddings, jellies, 
pork, veal, and all fried meats. Fruit except straw- 
berries and bananas, is allowed. 



Dainty 
Serving 




TRAY WITH FEET 

Too great stress cannot be laid on the necessity for 
a dainty serving of the patient's meals. They should 
be either very hot or perfectly cold, as the case re- 
quires. Have clean napkins, spotless china, and shin- 
ing silver and glass. Be careful in carrying the tray 
not to spill any of the fluids, and, as has been said 
before, do not have too much on the tray at a time. 

Furthermore, that the patient may thoroughly enjoy 
the meal, it is necessary that she should be perfectly 



690 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 



97 



comfortable. Therefore, before bringing in the tray, 
wash her face and hands, shake up the pillows, and 
decide where it is best to set the tray. If there is no 
bedside table or tray with feet, it is a good plan to 
have two blocks of wood to put on each side of the 
patient. They should be about the width of the tray, 
and high enough to hold it off the patient's chest. 
Magazines will answer the purpose if the blocks can- 
not be obtained. Always protect the night-gown and 
bed clothes with a towel or table napkin. 

RECIPES 

Milk 

In warming milk for drinking never allow it to 
boil, and always keep it covered. It is the coagula- 
tion of the casein by boiling, and the evaporation of 
certain gases, that renders it indigestible. 

Brandy Milk with Egg 

Beat one ^gg with one tablespoonful of sugar ; add 
two tablespoonfuls of brandy and a cup of cold milk. 

Koumyss 

I qt. perfectly fresh milk. 

I -5th of a 2-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. 

I tablespoonful of sugar. 

Dissolve the veast in a little water ; mix it with the 
sugar and milk. Put the mixture into strong bottles ; 
cork them with tightly fitting stoppers ; tie down se- 
curely with stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full 



Never 
Boil 



Five 
Days 
Required 



691 



98 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

minute; place them on end in a refrigerator; at the 
end of three days lay them on their sides ; turn them 
occasionally. Five days will be required to perfect 
fermentation. Kept in the refrigerator and well corked 
koumyss will keep indefinitely. 

Iklilk Lemonade 

I tablespoon ful sugar. 
I cup boiling water. 
^ cup lemon juice. 
34 cup sherry. 
ili cups cold milk. 

Pour the boiling water over the sugar; add the 
' lemon juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar dis- 
solves ; add the cold milk ; stir again until the milk 
curdles ; strain through muslin. 

Milk Punch 

Sweeten i cup- of milk with i teaspoonful of sugar; 
stir in 2 tablespoon fuls of brandy ; beat with egg- 
beater ; pour into glass and grate nutmeg over the top. 

Milk Rennet 

^gg Stir I teaspoonful of rennet and 2 teaspoonfuls of 

^China sherry together with i teaspoonful of sugar. Heat i 
pint of milk until it is exactly 100° F. ; pour into bowl 
containing rennet and wine ; stir quickly and only 
enough to mix ingredients ; grate nutmeg over the top, 
and set on ice till solid. 



692 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 99 

Peptonized Milk 

Mix 5 grains of pancreatic extract and 15 of soda 
bicarbonate with cold milk ; warm a pint of milk and 
add; stir well and put on ice to cool. 

Barley Gruel 

Mix I tablespoonful of Robinson's barley-flour with 
half a teaspoonful of sugar ; pour over this a cup of 
boiling water ; boil ten minutes ; add a cup of milk ; 
bring to boiling point ; serve very hot. 

Arrowroot Gruel 

Mix half a tablespoonful of arrowroot with i salt- 
spoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful of sugar, wet with 
2 tablespoojifuls of cold water ; pour on a cup of boil- 
ing water, stirring constantly. Boil for twenty min- 
utes ; add the milk, and bring to boiling point ; strain ; 
serve immediately. A little port wine is often added. 

Oatmeal Gruel 

Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, half a teaspoonful 
of sugar and a saltspoonful of salt. Pour this slowly 
into boiling water; cook in a saucepan for thirty 
minutes, or, preferably, in a double boiler for two 
hours ; strain ; add the milk, and bring to boiling 
point. 

Cracker Gruel 

Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of cracker crumbs with half a 
saltspoonful of salt and half a teaspoonful of sugar. 
Pour over this a cup of boiling water, add one cup of 
milk and simmer for two minutes. 



GrueU 



693 



100 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

Beef Tea 
Cut two pounds of round steak into half-inch 
squares; put into double boiler and add one quart of 
water; let stand one hour, then place over fire and let 
simmer two hours ; flavor to taste. 

Chicken Broth 

Broths Cut up a fowl (which has been properly cleaned) 

into small pieces ; add a quart or a quart and a half of 
cold water, according to size of fowl. Let stand for 
one hour and simmer for two hours, then boil slightly 
for one. Strain it, rem.ove fat, and flavor to taste. 

Mutton Broth 

Cut one pound of loin or neck of mutton into small 
pieces ; put with one teaspoonful of chopped onion 
into one quart of water. Let stand one hour, and 
simmer three ; strain ; let cool ; then remove the fat 
which rises to the top. Heat when ready to serve ; 
season with salt and white pepper. 

Flaxseed Tea 

Drinks Boil oue tablespoonful of flaxseed in a pint of water 

for one hour ; strain ; add one tablespoonful of lemon 
juice and one tablespoonful of sugar; serve either hot 
or cold. The loss by evaporation should be made good 
from time to time, so that at the end of the cooking 
there shall be one pint of tea. 

Coflfee 
For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoonful 
of cofifee. Soak the cofifee for several hours in cold 



694 



FOOD FOR THE SICK loi 

water; bring to boiling point and let simmer for a 
few minutes ; let stand on the back of the stove for a 
minute to settle before serving. 

Caudle 

To a cupful of thin oatmeal gruel add a tablespoonful 
of sherry, one tgg well beaten, sugar to taste ; it can 
be served either hot or cold. 

Toast Water 

Toast till dry three slices of bread an inch thick; 
break into small pieces; add a pint of cold water; soak 
for an hour; strain, and squeeze the water out of the 
toast with the back of a spoon. Serve cold ; if desired 
a little cream and sugar may be added. 

Barley "Water 

Boil one tablespoonful of barley flour, a teaspoonful 
of sugar, a saltspoonful of salt and a quart of water 
together for fifteen minutes ; strain ; it can be flavored 
either with lemon juice or port or sherry wine. 

Rice "Water 

This is made in the same manner as barley water, 
except that two tablespoonfuls of rice will be required 
to a quart of water. 

Oyster Soup 

Heat a cup of milk; add two tablespoonfuls of 
cracker crumbs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of 
pepper, a fourth of a teaspoonful of butter ; when this 
is warm through add a cup of fresh oysters and juice; 



695 



102 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

allow to simmer for about two minutes, or till the gills 
of the oysters curl. 

Milk Toast 

Toast three slices of bread a delicate brown ; butter 
them and put them into a covered dish. Cover them 
with milk which has been brought almost to boiling 
point. 

Soft Custard 

Beat together the yolks of two eggs, a saltspoonful 
of salt, and two tablespoonfuls of sugar ; add this 
slowly to a pint of milk which has been brought to 
boiling point ; boil three minutes. Flavor with vanilla 
or sherry wine ; serve cold. 

Egg-nog 

Egg Break one tgg into a bowl ; add one saltspoon- 

ful of salt and two teaspoonfuls of sugar ; beat 
until light ; add one cup of milk, one or two tablespoon- 
fuls of good brandy or whisky; serve immediately. 

Sherry and Egg 

Break an (tgg into a bowl ; add a teaspoonful of 
sugar ; beat the two together until well mixed ; add 
two tablespoonfuls of sherry wine and a fourth of a 
cup of cold water ; mix thoroughly ; strain, and serve 
immediately. 

Scrambled Eggs 

Beat two eggs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of 
white pepper, wnth a Dover egg-beater, until quite 
light; add four tablespoonfuls of sweet cream or milk; 



696 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 103 

turn the mixture into a double boiler; cook, stirring 
constantly until the albumen is coagulated. 

Foamy Omelet 

Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs. To 
the yolks add a saltspoonful of salt and one-fourth of 
a saltspoonful of pepper. Beat with a Dover egg- 
beater until light ; add two tablespoonfuls of milk. 
Beat the whites until fairly stiff, and fold them into 
the yolk; pour the mixture into a hot buttered omelet 
pan ; cook for about two minutes ; put into the oven for 
one minute to cook the upper surface. 

Egg Cream 

Separate the yolks of two eggs from the whites; 
add two tablespoonfuls of sugar to the yolks ; beat 
until well mixed ; add the juice and grated rind of half 
a lemon ; place the bowl in a dish of boiling water on 
the fire ; stir slowly until the mixture begins to thicken ; 
add the beaten whites of eggs, and stir for two minutes. 
Serve cold. 

Poached Eggs 

Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan ; salt 
it and add half a teaspoonful of vinegar ; break a fresh 
egg gently into this. As soon as the white is firm lift 
out the egg with a skimmer, and put on crustless but- 
tered toast. 

Soft Cooked Eggs 

Never boil eggs for the sick. Boil enough water to 
cover the eggs ; put them in ; reniove the saucepan to 



697 



Jellies 



104 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

the back of the stove where the water will not lose its 
warmth too soon, and let them stand ten minutes. 

Jellies 

The order for making nearly all jellies is as follows: 
The gelatine is hydrated, or softened, by soaking in the 
cold water for half an hour. The boiling water, sugar 
and flavoring are then added, in the given order. 
Strain and cool. 

Lemon Jelly 

yi box of gelatine. 

y^ cup of cold water. 

lyi cups of boiling water. 

3^ cup of sugar. 

^ cup of lemon juice. 

I tablespoon ful of brandy. 

Orange Jelly 

% box of gelatine. 
34 cup of cold water. 
y2 cup of boiling water. 
3/2 cup of sugar. 
I cup of orange juice. 
Juice of half a lemon. 

As soon as the latter begins to stiffen it can be 
whipped till stiff, making orange sponge, which, 
served with custard, makes a very dainty dish. 

Velvet Cream 

Soak 34 box of gelatine in 34 cup of cold water for 
half an hour; then p"our in 34 cup of sherry wine; set 



698 



FOOD FOR THE SICK 105 

the bowi in a dish of boihng water over the fire. When 
the gelatine is dissolved add a teaspoonful of lemon 
juice and ^ a cup of sugar ; strain ; set the bowl in a 
dish of ice and water to cool. As soon as it begins to 
thicken turn in the cream. Stir this until it also thick- 
ens ; mould and put on ice. Serve with cream. 

Wine Jelly 

% box of gelatine. 

yi cup of cold water. 

1^4 cups of boiling water. 

^2 cup of sugar. 

^ a square inch cinnamon. 

I clove. 

3^ cup of sherry wine. 

Coflfee Jelly 

%. box gelatine. 
^4 cup of cold water. 
I cup of boiling water. 
^ cup of strong cofifee. 
3/2 a teaspoonful of vanilla. 
^ a cup of sugar. 

EMERGENCIES. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

In all emergencies one of the chief requisites is 
coolness. Do not get excited, or you will be perfectly 
useless. When the doctor's services are necessary send 
him a zvrittcn statement of the case, that he may come 
prepared with the proper appliances. Severe injury 



699 



the Air 



lob HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

of any kind is apt to be followed by that complete 
prostration of the vital powers known as "shock." 
Therefore, after such, the patient should be put into a 
warm bed, and hot water bags applied to the feet and 
over the heart. 

Exclude Scalds and Burns. In the treatment of scalds and 

burns the first object is to allay the pain by excluding 
the air. This is done best by the application of clean, 
soft, white linen or cotton cloths wrung out in a solu- 
tion made by dissolving a tablespoonful of bicarbonate 
of soda (baking soda) in a pint of boiled water. This 
treatment can be continued for the first few days ; 
afterwards boric acid ointment spread on lint or soft 
sterile cotton will be found healing. Do not try to 
treat a burn of any extent without a doctor's advice, 
as many complications are likely to ensue. In fact, in 
such cases, it is always best to send for the doctor 
immediately, as many people have died from shock 
after comparatively small burns. 

Frost Bites. Rub with snow, or cloths wrung out in 
ice-water. The rubbing must be very light at first, and 
the patient kept away from the heat. 

Syncope or Fainting. Place the head lower than the 
feet if possible; give plenty of fresh air. Ammonia 
may be given by inhalation, but it should not be very 
strong, as it is irritating to the bronchial tubes. If 
these measures are not successful treat as in case of 
shock. 



700 



EMERGENCIES 107 

Shock. Put the patient into a warm bed ; undress 
and roll in blankets ; apply heat to the extremities and 
over the heart; raise the foot of the bed, so that the 
patient's head will be considerably lower than the feet. 
If possible avoid giving stimulation till the doctor 
arrives ; if, however, he cannot be found, and the case 
is urgent, give a rectal injection of whisky i oz., 
water 5 ozs. (105° F.), salt 5 grains. Coffee may be 
used instead of water and salt. 

Epilepsy. Loosen all clothing; put something be- 
tween the teeth to prevent the tongue being bitten ; 
have the head on a level with the feet ; give plenty 
of fresh air but no stimulants. 

Drozvning. In cases of drowning where a person is 
apparently lifeless, efforts to restore life should be 
commenced at once by loosening all tight clothing 
around neck, chest, and waist. Turn the patient over 
quickly on his face, raising the body slightly at the 
waist to allow any water in the throat or air passages 
to run out. Wrap a handkerchief or a towel around 
the forefinger and gently cleanse the mouth. All this 
should take only a minute or two. Place the person 
upon his back with a folded coat or a firm pad of any 
kind under his shoulders to raise them a little. Be 
careful that the tongue does not slip back and shut 
off the air from the trachea. If it shows any tendency 
to do so, have some one hold it out, or tie a hand' 
kerchief around it and then around the neck. 



701 



io8 



HOME CARE OE THE SICK 



Artificial 
Respiration 



Now artificial respiration should be produced until 
the natural breathing is restored. To do this kneel 




ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (First Movement) 

behind the patient and grasping his arms just below 
the elbows, draw them slowly upward above his head 
until they nearly touch. Give a firm pull for a mo- 
ment. This movement tends to fill the lungs with air 
by raising the ribs and increasing the chest cavity. 




ARTIFIC^IAL RESPIRATION (Second Movement) 

Then carry the arms slowly back* to the sides of the 
body and press them against the ribs. This movement 
forces out the air which was drawn into the lungs and 
makes artificially a complete respiration. These two 



702 



EMERGENCIES. 109 

movements should be repeated slowly and steadily 
about sixteen times in a minute, until respiration takes 
place naturally. This may require an hour or more. 

Asphyxiation, Caused by Gas, Smoke, etc. Remove 
the patient into the fresh air, loosen the clothing, 
throw cold water in the face, neck, and chest ; apply 
heat to the feet and over the heart. If respiration is 




Guarding 



EXPELLING THE AIR (Third Movement) 

shallow, artificial respiration should be performed, and, 
if necessary, treat as for shock. 

Contusions, or Bruises, are best treated by rest and 
cold applications. 

Wounds. When there is a cut, the first procedure, 
provided there is no hemorrhage, is to wash out the gfooJ^* 
wound well with bichloride, 1-5000, and bind it u]) Poisoning 
with* sterile gauze. A wound will heal without the 
formation of pus if all bacteria arc killed or kept out. 
When the cut is long, or the ends of the wound do not 
come together well, the doctor should be summoned, 
as putting in a few stitches may prevent an unsightly 



703 



110 



HOME CARli Ol' THE SICK 



Tourniquet 



scar, (llavinj^ bichloride and sterile ^auze always in 
the honse would save many a case of hlood poison, 
infected lingers, etc.) Collodion is useful in keeping 
bacteria out of small cuts and in ap[)lying absorbent 
cotton over wounds in place's where bandages cannot 
be used. 

flciiiorrJidi^i'. I'dev.ile llie alTeclt'(l pari ; make com- 
j)ression over the wound by applying clean compresses 
and bandaging lighlly. If this does nol c^berk il, and 
you do not know the ccjurse of the arteries well enough 




Manner of compressing an artery witli a Imndkcrchicf and ntick. 

to make comj)ression upon the re(|uired one, tie on a 
bandage very tightly above the wound. A ])eniil or a 
piece of wood stuck under this, and turned around, 
will act as a touruicjuet. When possible, in addition 
to this it is always better to i)lace a hard pad over the 
course of the artery. A doctor's aid must be sought 
immediately, for if the blood is shut off in this manner 
longer than an hour gangrene is likely to set in. 



704 



EMERGENCIES 



III 



Epistaxis (bleeding from the nose). Make the pa- 
tient stand or sit erect ; throw the head back and 
elevate the arms, while you apply ice or ice-cold com- 
presses to the forehead and back of neck. If the 
bleeding still continues the nostrils should be syringed 
with salt and water, ice cold. Avoid blowing the nose, 
and so disturbing the formation of clots. 

Hemorrhage from the Lungs. Keep the patient 
quiet, give crushed ice, and put ice-cap on chest. Salt 
solution made by dissolving a teaspoonful of salt in a 
small cup of water may also be given. 

Sprains occur most frequently at the wrist and ankle 
joint. Soak the afifected part in hot water, or apply 
hot compresses. The joint should then be supported 
by strapping, and given moderate use. A surgeon 
should do the strapping, for if it is not properly done 
serious trouble may result. 

Fractures. It is a mistaken impression that a frac- 
ture must be set immediately. It will do less harm 
for it to be left a day or two without splints than for 
them to be applied awkwardly. Handle the injured 
limb as little as possible, and keep the patient quiet 
until a competent surgeon can be obtained. Temporary 
splints made of pasteboard, shingles, etc., may be 
bound on to prevent the spasmodic twitching of the 
muscles ; cold or hot compresses applied will keep 
down the swelling and relieve the pain. 

Dislocations should be reduced as soon as possible, 
but only a surgeon can do this properly. 



Cold 
Applications 



Strapping: 



Fractures 
Need 

Not Be Set 
At Once 



705 



But Water 



112 HOMh CAKt Ut IMh MLK 

FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE, EAR, NOSE, THROAT 

The Eye. If anything gets under the lower lid, draw 
the lid down by the lashes, direct the patient to turn 
the eyeball toward the nose, and the offending body 
can then be wiped out with a soft handkerchief. If it 
is under the upper lid, this can be turned up over a 
thin pencil or knitting needle, and treated in the same 
way, except that the patient is directed to look down. 
Always wipe the eye towards the nose. If the particle 
is imbedded in the surface of the eyeball a surgeon 
must be notified immediately ; do not make any effort 
to get it out. 
Use Nothing I'orcii^u Body in the Ear. Unless the object is 

something that will swell with moisture, syringe gently 
with warm water, taking care not to close the opening 
with the nozzle of the syringe. If this method fails go 
to a doctor ; any unskilled effort to poke or probe the 
object out is likely to result in permanent injury to 
tne ear. 

The Nose. When a foreign body is in the nostril 
make the patient take a full breath, then close the 
mouth and the other nostril firmly — the air will prob- 
ably expel the obstruction. If this fails, and the object 
is in sight, compress the nostrils above and hook it 
out with a hairpin or piece of bent wire. 

A Eoreii^n Body in the Throat may be hooked out 
in the same way; if not, a ])iecc of bread should be 
swallowed ; this may carry down the obstruction. Do 
not give purgative medicine, as is often done, but 



706 



POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 113 

rather plenty of solid food, especially potatoes and 
bread. 

'A Foreign Body in the Windpipe will usually be 
dislodged by the coughing which its presence excites ; 
if not, a blow on the back, or, in the case of a child, 
holding it up by the feet and administering a succes- 
sion of blows between the shoulders will generally 
produce the desired effect. 

POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 

The treatment has three objects in view: to re- Give an 
move the poisonous substance, neutralize its further A?^once 
action, and remedy the ill effects already produced. 
An emetic is the first consideration. A tablespoonful 
of salt or mustard stirred into a glass of lukewarm 
water will usually prove effective. This dose should be 
repeated three or four times. An enema should also 
be given, the patient kept warm, and, as soon as vomit- 
ing ceases, the chemical antidote given. 

The following table of the chemical antidotes and 
further treatment of the most common poisons should 
be learned and remembered. 

Carbolic Acid. Lime water and milk, equal parts, 
a pint to a pint and a half. Atropine and heart stimu- 
lants, such as whisky and strychnine, may be required, 
given hypodermically. 

Nitric or Oxalic Acid. Chalk or whiting, the plaster 
from walls, milk and lime water. Give whichever can 
be obtained quickest. 



;o7 



114 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

Ammonia. Vinegar or lemon juice, followed by 
castor or olive oil. 

Arsenic. The best antidote is tincture of iron, di- 
luted with v/ater, and either baking or washing soda. 
Lacking this, or till it can be obtained, give milk and 
white of Qgg, or flour and water. 

Aconite or Belladonna. Strong, hot coffee. Give 
artificial respiration if necessary. 

Bichloride of Mercury (corrosive sublimate). White 
of Qgg — white of two eggs to a pint of water. 
Calomel. The same as bichloride of mercury. 

Opium. Strong, hot coffee. Keep the patient 
awake, using artificial respiration when necessary ; 
permanganate of potash and tannic acid are the best 
chemical antidotes, but they can rarely be obtained 
in a hurry. 

BANDAGES AND BANDAGING. 

Materials ^^^^ materials most commonly used for making 

bandages are either unbleached muslin or gauze. Mus- 
lin bandages are best when necessary to keep a splint 
in place, or make firm pressure. Gauzes are infinitely 
preferable when the object is only to keep a surgical 
dressing in position ; they adapt themselves more 
neatly to the part, and are much cooler. 

Bandages should be six to eight yards long; they 
vary in width from one inch to four ; one inch for 
finger bandages, two for hands and feet, two and a 



708 



BANDAGING 



"S 



half to three for head and arms, three to four for legs, 
spicas, etc. 

The three fundamental forms of bandaging are : the 
spiral, reverse, and figure eight. 

The figure eight principle is the one most used, and 
is the easiest method to learn. It is made by turning 
the bandage round the limb in the form of the figure 
8, each figure being higher than the preceding one, 
but overlapping it one-third of its width. A bandage 
must lie smoothly without wrinkles, making an even 
but not too severe pressure. It must not be loose 
enough to slip, yet not tight enough to be painful or 
impede the circulation. 

When finishing a bandage always put the pin on the 
outer side of a limb, and in all cases where it will 
least interfere with the patient's comfort. Safety pins 
should always be used. 

In bandaging a limb begin at the extremity, and 
work upwards from left to right. Hold the bandage 
with the roll side upward. 

To bandage a foot start the free end of the bandage 
at the instep, make a turn around the base of the toes, 
carry the bandage diagonally over the foot, across the 
point of the heel, and back from the other side till it 
coincides with the first turn. Cover this, and carry a 
second turn around the heel, half an inch higher than 
the first. Continue making alternate turns under the 
sole and behind the heel, crossing over the instep, until 
the foot is covered. Finish with a couple of circular 



Figure 

Eight 

Bandage 



Finishing 



Foot 
Bandage 



709 



ii6 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



Legr 
Bandage 



turns around the ankle, or, if desired, continue up the 
leg. 

The beginning of the leg bandage is placed obliquely 
across the leg above the ankle ; a circular turn keeps 
it in place ; then the bandage, is inclined up the leg, 
and a turn taken around it. It is then brought down- 
ward, and another turn taken around the ankle. Suc- 







FIGURE 8 OF THE FOOT. 

cessive turns are to be made, each one higher than 
the preceding, till the entire limb is covered. 

To bandage a hand begin at the top of the first 
finger and cover it by a succession of oblique circular 
turns, or figures of eight, to its base. Then make a 
turn around the wrist to keep these from slipping, and 
return to the root of the second finger. Lead the 



710 



BANDAGING 



117 



bandage by one or two spirals to the top of this, then 
proceed down it, as upon the first finger, concluding 
with another turn upon the wrist. Cover each finger 
successively in the same way; then take a wider 
bandage, start at the back of the 
hand and wind it around the base 
of the fingers, carry it obliquely 
across the back of the hand around 
the wrist, back to the further side, 
and again around the palm. Con- 
tinue these turns alternately till the 
hand is covered. The arm is ban- 
daged in the same manner as the 
leg. 

When it is only necessary to cover 
the forehead or back of the head the 
figure-of-eight is all that is required. Figure 8 of the Leg 
Start the bandage over the ear, carry it across the 
eyebrows and around the back of the head as high as 
possible. Continue to wind it round thus, making 





FIGURE 8 OF THE ARM. 

each turn a little higher in the front, and lower in the 
back, until you have covered as much surface as 
required. When the whole head needs covering 
the capeline is better. This is put on by a 



Forehead or 
Back of Head 



The 
Capeline 



711 



ii8 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



double roller (join two bandages by rolling). Stand 
behind the patient, and, taking one roll in each hand, 
begin low on the forehead and carry them round the 
head, far down on the nape of the neck ; then transfer 
the bandage in the left hand to the one in the right, 
and continue it round, while the other is folded over 
at right angles with it, and brought across the top of 
the head to the front. Here it meets the other and 
crosses it again, running backward and overlapping 
the former folds. These turns are continued until the 




Four Tailed 
Bandages 



Bandage of the Hand 

whole head is covered, one bandage going round and 
round it, and the other going back and forth across 
it ; all the folds leading from the front of the head to 
the back should be on the left of the middle, while 
those leading toward the front should be on the right. 
Finish with a circular turn around the head ; fasten 
with a safety pin in front. 

The tailed bandages arc often found very convenient, 
especially for keeping poultices and the like in posi- 
tion. 

The four tailed bandage of the head is made from 
a piece of muslin eight inches wide and long enough 



712 



BANDAGING 119 

to go over the scalp and tie under the chin. It is torn 
from each extremity to within three or four inches 
of the middle. The body of the bandage is placed on 





FIGURE 8 OF THE HEAD 

the top of the head, the two posterior tails tied under 
the chin, and the two anterior ones around the back of 





THE CAPE LINE 

the neck. If it is desired to cover the front of the 
head the body of the bandage is placed at this point, 
the two anterior tails are fastened at the back of the 
head, and the two posterior ones down under the jaw. 



713 



120 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 



A four tailed bandage for the knee is made by 
splitting a strip of muslin at each end, to within two 
or three inches of the center. Place the body of the 





FOUR-TAILED BANDAGE OF THE HEAD 

bandage over the knee, carry the tails under the knee, 
cross them so that the lower ones will come above the 
joint, and the upper ones below ; bring 
them around, and tie in front. 
Scuitetut A scultetus, or many tailed, is used 

on the abdomen, to obtain pressure, to 
keep a surgical dressing or poultice in 
place, etc. To make it take four or five 
strips three inches wide and a yard and 
a quarter to a yard and a half long, sew 
them together in the center for a quar- 
ter of a yard, each one overlapping the 
other by two-thirds of its width. To 
apply, pass the bandage under the pa- 
tient, so that the sewed part is under 
her back ; fold the strips alternatelv 

' Four Tailed Band 

over the abdomen, from below upward, age of the Knee 




714 



BANDAGING 



121 



To make a sling take a square yard of muslin and 
cut it across diagonally; this makes two slings. When 
the fore-arm is injured its whole extent should be 
supported equally. Put it in the center of the sling; 
carry its outer end around the neck on the side of the 
injured arm, and the end between the arm and the 



Slings 





SLINGS FOR LOWER AND UPPER ARMS 

chest around the other side, tying them at the back. 
The third end is brought around the elbow and fas- 
tened in front. 

If the injury is of the upper arm the sling should 
support the wrist only, making no pressure on the 
elbow. Turn the hand palm inward, fold the apex 
of the bandage in place, the arm just above the wrist 
in the center of the sling, cross the ends and tie them 
around the neck. 

The student should practice the various bandages 
and slings described on some member of the family 
or a friend. Some little experience is required before 
they can be applied securely and neatly. The illustra- 
tions will help to make the matter clear. 



Sling for 
Upper Arm 



715 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

PART II 



Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that your in- 
structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry 
out the directions given in the text, if possible, before 
answering the questions. 



1. How are infectious and contagious diseases alike? 

How do they differ? Name some of each. 

2. What precautionary measures should be taken 

with typhoid fever? With consumption? 

3. What are the rules when isolation is necessary? 

4. What precautionary measures should be taken 

by the attendant while nursing in a contagious 
disease? 

5. How disinfect (a) the patient, (b) the room, 

(c) the furnishings at the termination of a 
contagious disease? 

6. Why are the many precautions taken in surgical 

operations and in childbirth? 

7. What can you say of diet for the sick? Why 

should special care be taken in serving? 

8. What should the medicine closet contain in prepa- 

ration for emergencies and accidents? 

9. How would you treat a scald or burn? Frost 

bite? A wound? 
10. What is shock and how should this condition be 
treated ? 



716 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

11. Why should written directions be sent to the 

doctor in accidents? 

12. What would you do for a sprain? Fractures? 

In case of hemorrhage from an arm or leg? 

13. What should be done at once for one who has 

fainted? One apparently drowned? Asphyxi- 
ated? 

14. Give the rules of hygiene in pregnancy. 

15. Name some of the things to be provided for child- 

birth. How should the room be prepared? 

16. Describe the stages of labor. 

17. What should be done if the doctor does not ar- 

rive in time? 

18. How should the child be cared for directly after 

birth ? 

19. How would you remove a foreign body from the 

eye? Ear? Nose? Throat? 

20. In case of poisoning, what objects has the treat- 

ment in view? 

21. What would you do for carbolic acid poisoning? 

Bichloride of mercury? Arsenic? Opium? 

22. Of what material are bandages made? How 

should they be applied and fastened? 

23. Bandage a foot as shown 'in the illustration and 

then describe the process. 

24. Try some of the other bandages described and 

report, 

25. Make and adjust a sling for the forearm. When 

should it be used? 

26. What questions would you like to ask in connec- 

tion with these lessons ? Tell of any experience 
that you may have had in nursing and of meth- 
ods that were helpful. 

Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 



717 



SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS 

STUDY ON 

HOME CARE FOR THE SICK 



MEETING I 

(Study pages 1-13) 



Symptoms of Disease 

See Care of Children, pages 153-159, for children's dis- 
eases. (Vol. XI of the Library of Home Economics.) 
The Sick-Room. 

See Household Hygiene, Ventilation and Heating, 
Home Nursing, Harrison, pages 1-13. ($1.00, post- 
age IOC.) 

MEETING II 

(Study pages 13-34) 
Care of the Patient 

Make bed with draw-sheet, as described in the text. 

Change the bed as described. 

Lift patient to sitting position. 

Make back rest and foot brace. 

Change patient from one bed to another, two methods. 

Change mattress with patient in bed. 

•Make a wadding ring to relieve pressure. 

If possible, get a trained nurse to show how these things 
are done. 
Convalescence 

Lift patient into a chair. 

Topic — Amusing the convalescent and sick children. 

MEETING III 

(Study pages 34-62.) 
Baths and Bathing 

Make up pitcher of water, cool, tepid, warm, etc., of 
the various degrees of temperature given on page 41. 

183 



718 



HOME CARE OF THE SICK 

Test with a bath or other thermometer and with the 
hand. Note how unreliable the hand may be; after 
the hand has been in the cold water, the tepid water 
feels warm, and after having been in the hot water, 
the tepid water feels cold. 

Home Nursing, Harrison, pages 63-73. ($1.00, post- 
age IOC. 

Practical Points in Nursing, Emily Stoney, pages 83-93 
($1.75, postage 20c.) 
Temperature, Pulse, Giving Medicine, etc. 

Obtain a clinical thermometer and take temperature a 
number of times, having all read the thermometer 
to i-ioof a degree, and write the reading on slips of 
paper. Compare results. If there is any difficulty 
in shaking down the mercury, get a physician or 
nurse to show how it is done. A clinical thermometei 
may be purchased through the School for $1.25, 
or will be loaned for loc. 

Count the pulse in quarters for a second, as described, 
and compare results as in the taking of temperature. 

Count the respiration, as directed. 

Have an exhibit of medicine glasses, feeding cups, 
syringes, ice-caps. 

Make poultices, sinapisms, flannel for fomentations, 
compresses. 

(Select answers to the Test Questions on Part I and send 
to the School. Report on Meetings I, II, and III.) 

MEETING IV 

(Study pages 63-73) 
Contagious Diseases: Disinfection 

See article in the supplement, also send for and read 
some of the following Bulletins issued by State 
Boards of Health: 



719 



PROGRAM 185 

Lansing, Michigan, "Dangerous Communicable Dis- 
eases." 
Concord, New Hampshire, "Consumption."' 
Springfield, Illinois, "Consumption'' also "Practical 

Disinfection.' ' 
Augusta, Maine, "Contagious Diseases.'' 
Trenton, New Jersey, "Restriction of the Spread of 

Infectious Diseases." 
These Bulletins are sent free, or for a 2c stamp. Send 
to your own State Board of Health, if not included 
in the above; to your capital city, for any Bulletins. 

MEETING V 

(Study pages 73-105) 
Surgical Work: Obstetrics 

Practical Points in Nursing, Stoney, ($1.75, postage 20c.) 
Food for the Sick 

Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent. 
($1.50, postage i8c.) 

Food for the Sick, French, ($1.00, postage loc.) 

Hand Book of Invalid Cookery, Boland, ($2.00, post- 
age 1 6c. 

Collect appropriate recipes in addition to those given 
in the text. 

Show dainty and suitable serving for the sick. 

MEETING VI 

(Study pages 1 05-1 21) 
Emergencies 

Practice artificial respiration, as described. 
Make a tourniquet. 
Bandaging and Bandages 

Practice all the bandages described. If possible, get 

a trained nurse to show methods. 
(Select answers to the Test Questions on Part II and 
report on Meetings IV, V, and VI.) 



720 



HOME CARE OE THE SlCR 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent ($1.50) 

Fannie M. Farmer, 
Food for the Sick ($1.00). Edward C. French. 
Home Nursing ($1.00). Eveleen Harrison. 
Nursing ($2.00). Isabel A. Hampton. 

Practical Normal Histology ($1.25). T. Mitchell Prudden. 
Practical Points in Nursing ($1.75). Emily A. N. Stoney. 
Text Book of Nursing ($1.75). Clara Week Shaw. 

MAGAZINES 

The American Journal of Nursing. 
The Trained Nurse. 

Note.— For the convenience of students the School will purchase and 
forward any of the above books on receipt of the price given. 



721 



ANNOUNCEMENT 

"LESSONS IN COOKING, THROUGH THE PREP- 
ARATION OF MEALS." 

THIS new correspondence course in cookery has been 
prepared to meet the needs of home-makers who have 
had Httle or no systematic training in modern methods 
of cooking but who desire to provide for their famihes sim- 
ple, yet appetizing and wholesome meals, with the last ex- 
penditure of time, effort and money. 

The ordinary cook book, with its numerous and compli- 
cated recipes, is of little help to the beginner. It does not 
answer the oft occurring question, "What shall I provide for 
today, tomorrow, for next week"? It gives no hint of 
wholesome food combinations or balanced diet. 

The problem of home cooking is not only how to cook 
various separate dishes but how to prepare whole meals. 
The plan of ''Lessons in Cooking" is unique and original in 
that a systematic course in cooking is taught through a series 
of menus, with detailed directions, not only for cooking the 
separate dishes, but also for preparing and serving each meal 
as a zchole. The course is divided into twelve parts, in each 
of which is given the recipes for a week's menu, typical of 
one month of the year — over 250 meals in all. In the first 
lessons, simple operations of cooking are described and 
gradually the more difficult and complicated recipes are in- 
troduoed, leading to advanced work in the later lessons. 
Throughout the course the question of wholesome food com- 
binations and balanced meals is carefully considered and 
special emphasis is given to economy of time and money. 

All available authorities have been consulted and the 
assistance of a number of prominent teachers of cookery 
has been obtained in the preparation of this course, which 
presents the best modern methods and the latest scientific 
discoveries relating to the "Fine Art of Cooking." 

lUillctin of sample ])ages sent on rccjuest from School 
of Home Economics, Chicago. 



722 



INDEX TO 
THE PROFESSION OF HOME MAKING 

HOME-STUDY COURSE 

As this Course or book is made up of four different 
books, the pages are re-numbered at the foot of the pages 
to provide a complete index. In using this index refer 
only to the mmibers at the bottom of the pages. 

Emergencies, accidents, poisons and antidotes, etc., are 
printed in black-faced type as an aid to ''quick reference." 



Absorbents of grease, SS 
Accidents, 699 
Account, bank, 4G0 

overdrawing. 464 
Accounts, 442-571 

balancing, 4.'50 

card systems, 446 

credit, 44S 

envelope method, 444 

itemized, 447 

systems. 444 

table of, 4."0 

weekly, 450 
Acetylene gas. 115 

generators, 116 
.\cid— definition of, 6S 

test f<ir. OS. i:>,2 
Aconite, poisoning, 708 
Adaptability. 447 
Adai)tatiiin to conditions, 411 
Adulterations, .■'>(i2 
Advance purcliasing, ."o.T 
Advantages of domestic service, 481 

of owning home, 422 
Air, 22, 107 

as food. :!.S 

composition of, 24, P,0 

pressure, 2.*> 

properties of, 22 



Air cushion — rubber. 621 
Airing the sick room. 604 
Aitch bone, use of, .539 
Albumin. 54 
Alcoliol as fuel, .•128 
Alkali, 68, 83, 133 
Alkali, effect on paint, 98 
Alkali metals, 7<) 
Alladin oven, 188 
Allowance for higher life, 437 

personal, 468 
Alum, 136 
Ammonia, 70. 136 

poisoning, 708 

use of, 83, 126 
Amusing i)atient. 623 
Aniline, 114 
Animal food, comparative composf- 

tion of, 248 
Animal productions, 5."7 
Anthracite coal. 2~> 
Antidote for poisons, 707 
Apartment life, 4!l3 
Ai'gon, 2(1 

Arsenic poisoning, 708 
Artificial breathing, 702 

skin, 019 
Ashes — removing, 005 
Asphyxiation, 703 
Atniosi)bere, 20-22 
Atinos|)lieric i)ressure, 23, 154 



Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



723 



INDEX 



Atoms, 128 
All gratin, oOS 



Baby, care of. GS5 
Back rest.s, G14 
Bacon, 550 
Baked beans. 397 
Baking bread. 290 

powder mixing, 294 

powder — strength of. 290 
Baking, dofinitidn of. ?,GS 
Baking powder. G.". 123, 1 r)G, 175 

chemistry of. 105 
Balance sheet, 451 
Bananas, 369 
Bandages. 708-715 

f'apeline, 711 

foot, 709 

forehead, 711 

fore-tailed, 712 

leg. 712 

materials for. 7<iS 

of the hand. 712 
Bandaging. 70S 

kinds of, 7<)9 
Bank acconnt. 460 

acconnt bookkeeping. 467 

aid to house wife. 46." 
Bargains — legitimate, 499 
Basting. 191 
Baths. G26 

cleansing. G26 

foot, 627 

hot, 629 

salt, 632 

temperature for, 633 

to reduce temperature, 62S 
Bath thermometer, 629 
Batteries, 123 
Bavarian cream, 3S0 
Beans, 269, 369 
Beating eggs. 246 
Bed linen, 51S 

room furnishings — cost of, 51 
B(>d sores, 617 

care of, 62() 
Bed. the. 601 

changing, 6nS 

height of, 601 

making, 607 

size of. 601 
Berf. .369 
Beef, corned. 542 

fore quarter, 534 

heart. ■)42 

hind (luarter. 537 

(luallty of, 529 

ribs of, 5.35 

steak cuts of. 538 

table of cuts of, 545 
Bc(>f braising. :'.94 
Belladonna — poisoning, 708 
Bibliography. 16."!, 322, 563 



Bichloride of mercury disinfectant, 
6.5S 

poisoning, 708 
Biscuits, 288, 387 
Bituminous coal. .33 
Blanc Mange. 379 
Bleaching, 94 

jiowder, 94 
Bleeding or hemorrhage, 704 
Blood poisoning, 703 
Blue tlame oil stove, :\7> 
Blueing, 145 

clothes, 81 
Blueing stains, 86 
Bob veal, 546 
Boiler, double, 2(11 
Boiling, 190, 202, .368 
Boiling clothes, 81 

point. 19. lG(i 
Bone black, .32 
Bones — nutriment in. 254 
Books, for reference on Home Mak- 
ing. 163. .322. 563 
Borax. 75. S3, 133 

use of, S3 
Boston baked beans. .397 
Boston brown bread. 388 
Bouillon. 377 
Braising. 200. .3GS 
Bran treatment, G28 
Bread, 283, 391 

Boston brown. 3S8 

baking of. 290 

digestibility of, 50 

double process. 28G 

fancy. 289 

flavoring of. 49 

ideal, 47 

kinds of, 46 

loft overs, 310 

making, 4S, 155 

mixing, 281 

short iirocess, 2S6 
Breakfast. .320 

foods, 277, 396 
Breathing, artificial, 702 
Brisket, use of, 537 
Broiling. 190 
Broiling. dcHuition, .368 
Broken hones, 705 
Broth. .58 
Brown sauce, 227 
Brushing woolens, 83 
Brussels carpet, 522 
Budgets— ideal, 419 

tyiiical, 417 
T'.uilding, cost of. 455 
Bulletins, bv V. S. (iovernment, free, 

164. :;22, 56:! 
Burns, 700 

r.usiuess, principles in home making, 
40S 

side of home making. .504 



j^oie. — For page nuinhcrs, sec foot of pages. 



724 



INDEX 



Butter. 224, 3G9, "j9 

couii)ositlon of, 22G 

for flavoring, 225 

precautions in use, 22S 

rancid, 22!J 
Buying, 20.j 

(luantities, 499, 561 

supplies, 499, 524 

C 

Caffein, 55 
Cake, 297. 345 

coffee. 391 

flavoring of, 299 

ingredients of, 299 

maliing, 345 

proportions in, 300 

sponge, 242, 385 

sweetening of. 300 
Calomel poisoning, 708 
t'andle flame, clieuiistry of, lOS 
Cane sugar, 40 
Canned foods, 211 
Canning foods, 217 
Caramel. 39S 
Carbohydrates. 3S, 217 
Carbolic acid disinfectant, 658 
Carbolic acid poisoning, 707 
Carbon, 25 

dioxide of, 20, 168 

monoxide of, 29 
Carbonates, test for, i;'>5 
Card index system. 452 
Cure of bed sores. 617 
Care of nurse. 6(»5 

of patient. 605 

of sick room. 601 
Carpets, brnssels, 522 

grades of, 522 

ingrain, 522 

re-made. 524 

tapestry. 522 
Carrots. comi)ositiou of, 369 
Carving. .532 
Casein. 54. 57 
Catlieterization. 649 
Caustic potash. 70 
Caustic soda. 70 
Cell. dry. 124 

leclanclie. 122 

voltaic, 121 
Cells in series. 123 
Cellulose, 39. 42. 263 

where found, 369 
Cement. 120 

hydraulic. 120 

Portland. 120 
Cereals, cooking, 276. 396 
Chafing dish, iss 

Changing mattress, pjitient in bed, 
617 

patient, one bed to another. 615 

position of iiatieut. 614 
Charcoal, 31, ISO 



Charcoal, making of, 31 

use of. 32 
Chairs, kitchen, 515 
Cliart. composition of food, 435 

division of inc<ime, 420 

econom.\' of food. 435 
Cheap cuts of beef. 541 
Checks, 462 
Cheese, 220, 229, 369 

composition of, 229 

nutritive value of, 229 
Chemicals, care of, i;:.2 

closet for, 134 

household. 131 

signs. 12s 

terms. 127 
Chemistry of a match. 29 

of baking powder. 1<)5 

of brea<l making, 48 

lauudrv. 78 

of candle. 108 

of cooking, 370 
Chicken, roasting, 262 
Chickenpox, 595 
Chill, cause of, 27 
Chloride of lime, 95 

test for, 136 
Chloride, action of. 95 
Chlorophyl, 125 
Choice of sick room. 601 
Cholera infantum, 697 
Chops, 393 
Chowders. 3<i7 
Chuck, use >->f, 535 
Classification of expenses, 458 

value of, 413 
Cleaning, 67. 102, 111 

metal. 99 

porcelain. 100 

with gasoline. 146 

woodwork, 98 
Clothing, cost of, 430 
Coal. 32. 327 

anthracite. 33 

nituniinous. 33 

distillation of. 113 

fuel value of 36, 325 

gas. 113. 1.30 

tar products, 114 
Coffee, making, 202, 376 
Coke. 33 
Coking coal. 33 
Cold storauc 204 
Colic, treatment for, 596 
Collagen, 55 
Collodi.)n, 619 
Color of beef. 530 
( ()nd)Ustion. 28. 37 

in body. 38 

spontaneous. 160 
Comparison, testing by. 131 
Composition of air, 24, 30, 176 

of butter, 226 

of cheese, 229 



Note. — For page nunihers, see foot of pages. 



725 



INDEX 



Composition of fats. .'2 

of foods, table, 3G9 

of gas, 158 

of grains, 274 

of milli, 219 

of soaji, 71 

of sugar, 10 

of water, 16 
Compounds, 14 

chemical, 69 

washing, 73. 137, 173 
Compresses, 6."4 
Condiments. 313 
Conservation of energy, 126. 160 

of matter. 31 

l)rincipl(> of, 126 
Constants in food. 317 
Consumption. (i.jO 

definition of, 401 
Contagion. 657 

Contagious diseases, 594, 661 
Conval(>scence. 621 

diet in. 621 
Convulsions, 597 
Cook l)ooks, use of. 340 
Cookery, art of, 2ir>, 315, 343 

fanc.v, 304 
Cookies, 301, 389 
Cooking, cereals. 4.", 276 

co-oi)erative. 336 

effects of, 59. 189 

fats. 51 

in milk. 222 

in water, methods of, 196 

object of. 59 

soda, 105 

temperature in. 199. 370, 372 

vegetables, 270 

with water, 199 
Cooking, free-hand. 367 
Co operative cooking. 336 
Corned beef. 542 
Corn cake, 38S 
Corn meal. 369, 396 
Corrosive sublimate, poisoning. 
Cost for service. 428 

of building. 425 

of food, 241. 318. 431. 577 

of living. 417. 571 
Cottage pudding. ;!01 
Cotton cloth, brands of, 518 

cloth, price of. 519 

fibres, structiu'e of, 78 
Creamed dishes. 228, 305, 377 

vegetables, 273 
Cream of tartar, 107 
Cream puffs. 245, 385 
Cro(iuettes. .308 
Croup, 598 

false, .598 

membraneous, 598 
Croutons, .392 
Cr.vstals. shape of, 14 

water in, 165 



708 



Crumbs, 392 
Custards, 380 
Cuts, of beef. 533 

of beef steak. 538 

of mutton. 549 

of pork. 550 

of roast beef, 527 

of veal. 547 
Cutting up beef, 533 

D 

Daily outline, 488 
Damask, 520 
Decay, 62 

cause of, 62 
Department stores, 505 
Depositing in bank, 461 
Desserts, 382 

Destructive distillation, 33, 157 
Dew point, 27 
Diet in convalescence, 621 

special, 691 
Differing oi)inions, ."(iO 
Digestibility of vegetables, 288 
Digestion of fats, 51 

of proteids, 59 

of starch. 43, 170 

of vegetables. 268 
Dining room — furnishing. 511 
Dinner, 320 
Diphtheria, 596 

cause of, 596 
Disadvantages of buying home, 422 

of domestic service, 482 
Diseases, children's. 596 

contagious. 594 

not contagious, .596 
Dishes, names of. 307 
Dishwashing. 76. 149, 194 

machines, 77 
Disinfectants, 657, 661 
Disinfection. 63. 65. !»7. 657. 659 

at termination of disease, 664 

of clothes. 662 

of dishes. 662 

of patient. 664 

of room. 665 

personal. 666 

special rules for, 663 
Dislocations, 705 
Distillation. 10. 113 

destructive. 33, 157 

factional, 157 
Distilled water, 10 
Division of income 415, 517 

of labor. 477 
Doctor, province of. 593 
Domestic service, 479. 498 

advantages of. 481 

cost of. 428 

disadvantages of, 482 

notes on, 582 

objections to, 484 



Note. — For pnr/e niinihers, sec foot of pages. 



726 



INDEX 



Domestic in-obleni, solution of, 490 
Double process — bread, 2S6 
Douches, G48 
Doughnuts. 301. 390 
Doughs. 281. 386 

manner of mixing, 129, 281 

(|uick. 386 

yeast. 39ri 
Draw sheets. 607 

changing. 608. 611 
Dress. -437 

Dressing, mavonnaise. 400 
Dried foods. 2<l9 
Drip coffee, 202. 376 
Drop cakes. 3S7 
Dropped egg. 238 
Drowning, 701 
Dr.v steaming, 868 
Dumplings. 387 
Dusting, 603 



Ear, foreign bodies in, 706 
Economic position of women, 4113 
Economics, divisions in. 401 
Econom.v, aims of. 402 

of food. 435, 577 

true, 409, 571 
Education of home maker, 406 
Eggs. 235, 369. 384, 559 

beating of. 246 

combined with other foods, 240 

effect of heat on, 236 

in doughs. 243 

poached. 238 

ju'eserving. 239. 560 

temperature for cooking, 237 

testing, 560 

timbals. .381 

value of. 230 

with cheese. 241 

with starch. 238 

with white sauce. 241 
Electric batteries, 123. 176 
Electricit.v. 121 
Elements, chemical, 30 

table of. 128 
Emergencies, 699 
Employment agencies. 496 
Emulsions. 71 
Enema, cleansing, 646 

soap. 647 
Enemata. nutritive, 644 
Energy, 53 

conservation of, 126, 160 

source of. 5:5 
Entrees. 306 

Envelope method of accounts, 444 
Epilepsy, 701 

Epistaxis (nose bleed), 705 
Essentials. 423 

Established standards of work. 491 
Estimate of kitchen utensils, 508 
Estimation of values, 406 



Evaporation, 198 

Expenditure for clothing, 430 

classifieation of, 414 

division of household, 421 

home. 409 

legitimate, 423 

record of. 414 
Expense of help by hour, 432 

operating. 426 
Experience of students with servant 

problem. 584 
Experiments with acids, 172 

alkalis. 172 

alum. 13 

baking powder, 291 

bluing, 174 

bones. 61 

breakfast food. 364 

butter. 226 

dishwashing, 77 

eggs. 237 

flame. I<i9 

gluten. 57 

hard water. 173 

iron rust. 175 

.ielly. 196 

manufacturing water, 167 

meat. 58 

potato, 204 

pressure of air, 168 

salts, 172 

soap. 173 

soda. 107. 200 

starch, 170 

taking temperature, 719 

water. 1<». 197. 198. 718 
Experiments, value of. 129 
Explosions, cause of. 110 
Explosive mixtures, llo 
Extractives. 55 
Extravagance. 418 
Eyes, care of. 667 
Eyes, foreign bodies in, 706 

F 
Fainting, 700 
Fanc.v cooking. 304 
Fats. 51. 69, 217. 2.53, 369 

composition of. 52 

cooking of. 51 

digestion of. 51 

heat from, 53 

to clarify. 393 

u.se of, 356 
Ferments. 44 
Fei-tilizers. 125 
Fever, scarlet. 596 

typhoid. 597 
Fibres, 78 

chemical action on, 79 

cotton. 78 

linen. 78 

silk. 79 

structure of, 77 

wool, 78 



Note. — For page numl>ers, see foot of pages. 



727 



INDEX 



Fillet of beof, 53S 

Filling:. .3i>2 

Filtering, 15 

Financially organized family, 4GS 

Fire, 177, 192 

Fire tests for kerosene, 3G 

Fireless cookers. '!,30 

liome made, 330 
First aid to injured, 699 
Fish balls, 395 
baking, 554 
boiling. 554 
kinds of, 553 
local varieties of, 554 
loaf, 395 

methods of cooking, 257 
proper ni)iiear:uice of, 257 
.sauces with, 25S 
scalloped, 305 
season of, 55.t 
selecting. 553 
shell, 555 
Flank, use of, 540 
Flash point, 36 
Flavor, 01, 312, 375 

blended, 314 
Flavoring material. 313. 314 
Floor of sick room. 603 
Flour, kinds of, ,284 
Flowers in sick room, 601 
Fomentation. G53 
Fondant. 399 
Food. 43o-:{7 

aesthetic demands for, 433 
air as, 3S 
canned, 211 
choice of, 215 
classification of, 216 
cost per iierson, 316, 431 
dried. 209 
economy, 577 
for the sick, 687 
highly seasoned, 622 
nitrogenous, 53 
])reserving, 208 
proper, 4.3<l 
starchy, 369 
time of cooking. .372 
nncooked. 208 
use of, 37 

varied with seasons, .353 
variety of. 304 
Avaste of money in. 431 
Foot brace, <J14 
Forefpiarter of beef. 534 
Foreign bodies, in ear, 706 
in eye, 7C6 
in nose, 706 
in throat, 706 
in windpipe, 707 
Fowl, itreparing for fricassee, 259. 

368 
Fractures, 705 
Free hand cooking, 367 



Freezing, 21 

latent heat of, 21 
French dressing, 400 
Fricasseeing. defjnilion of, 
Frost bites, 7C0 
Frost ings, .399 
Fruits. 208-.39 

coml)inations. 309 

dried, how to cook, 377 



368 



of, ,39 
368 



food yalue 

stains, 89 
P>ying. 254, 
Fuel, 179 

comparative value of, 325 

comparison of, 36 

cost of, 36. 326 

for sick room. 605 

value. .•',6 
Furnishings, kitchen, 

sick room. 601 



G 



337 



Garnish. 31(1 

Cas, 113, 184, .327 

asphyxiation, 703 

acetylene, 115 

burners, 184 

coal, 113 

composition of, 158 

from candle, 108 

gasoline'. 117 

meter. 186 

natural, 115 

stoves, 185 

water, 114 
Gasoline, cleaning witli, 35, 146 

stoves, 187 
(;elatine, 310, 380 

.ielly, 196 
Gelatinoids, 54 
Gems, 388 

(Jerman measles. 595 
Get-rich-(piick schemes, 441 
(Jinger bread. 3S9 
Glucose, 40 
(Jluten, 54, 57, 170 
Government Bulletins, free, 164, 322, 

563 
Gowns, .short. 612 
Grains, comi)Osition of, 274 
(Jrape. sugar, 41 
(iraphile. 32 
(irease spots. 87 
Griddle cakes. 388 
Groceries, brand of. 562 
dry, 561 

H 

Haddock. .5.53 
Hair, care of. 624 

washing, 625 
Hard coal. ]8<) 

water, 15, 74, 142, 173 



Note— For page nuiiihcr,s, sec foot of pages. 



728 



INDEX 



Hard water, cooking with, 75 

water, with soap," 75 
Hash, S()7, ;}!t8 
Hay box, :v.iO 
use of, v,:y.\ 
Health, value of, 474 
Heat, 20 

Heat, effect on foods, .'{(j!) 
effect of, on albiiniiu, '.\(j\) 
effect of, on baking- powder, .370 
effect of, on cellulose. ;5(j!) 
effect of, on f.-its. .•]7<) 
effect of, on food materials, 36!i 
effect of, on jrelatine. .•;70 
effect of, on suirar, .370 
effect of, on starch. .•;<!!) 
latent. 20. 152. IOC 
transmission of. i;)() 
Help, by the hour. 4!,'(i ."sfj 
Hemorrhage (bleeding), 704 
in child birth. 684 
from lungs, 704 
signs of, 673 
High cost of food. 4.32 
High temperature, G35 
Higher life, 4.37 

allowance for, 4.37 
Hindquarter of beef. 5.37 
Home, advantages of owning 42'^ 
expenditures, 40iJ. 441 
sanctity of. 405 
.soap making. 147 
Hcmie maker, education of. 400 
Home making, business side of, 404 

right spirit in, 408 
Hot i)ack, 02!) 
Hour work, 490, 5S0 
Household accounts, 432, 571 
chemicals. 131 
aid society, 408 
Household expenses, classification of 
458 
manager, expert, 5G3 
Housekeeper's laboratorv, 120 

library, 102 
Housekeeping, a profe.s.sion. 405 

on business-like basis, 407 
Housewife, tests of good, 420 
Housework helper, wages of, 428 
Hydro-carbons, 33, 144 
Hydrogen, 17 

peroxide, 98 
Hydraulic cement. 120 
Hypodermic injections, G45 



Ice, 204 

cai)s, 053 

cream, .382 

cieam free7.er, 207 
Ideals, realizing. 4.38 
Ignorance of servants. 
Immigrants' help, 480 
Impurities in water, 141 



485 



Income, divisions of. 415 511 

regular. 415 
Incubation, period of. TMi 
Indorsement of checks. 402 
Industrial clianues, 4.si'i 
Infectious diseases, 658 
Ingrain carpet, grades of. .-.22 
Inhalations. 045 

steam, 508 
Initiative in the home, 4(i5 
Injections, 042 

hyjiodermic. 045 
Injuries, 699 
Ink. 01 

colored. 02 
indelible. 00 
on cai'iiets. 02 
removal of. !)1 
Insurance, life. 440 
Intentions, good, 4ii» 
Intestinal obstructions. .507 
Investments, divisions for wise 430 
Iron cooking utensils, 5i;; 
Iron rust, removing, 02 174 
Isolation, 001 
time of, 505 



.Tavelle water, 00 
Jellies, 211, .383 
Judging meat. 240 

poultry, 259 
Junket, 220, 3S2 

K 

Keeping fire, 183 

Kensington sqnares, cost of 5''4 

Kerosene, 34, ,320 

flash point of. 30, 100 

lamps, 112, 320 

stoves, 187 

use in cleaning, 00, 134 

washing with.^ 145 
Kidneys, beef, .543 
Kindling fires, 183 

point, 28 
Kisses, 395 
Kitchen cabinet, 514 

chairs, 515 

floor covering. 512 

furnishings. 337, 512 

scales, 311 

stove, 512 

tables, 515 

utensils, 507 
Kneading. 288 
Kromeskies, 308 

L 

Labor, cost of, 318 

division of, 473 

organization of, 473 
Laboratory, acids for, 132 

iKiusekeeper's. 129 



Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



729 



INDEX 



Lactose, 40 
Lamb. 250. 548 

chops, 549 
Lamps. 112 

kerosene, 112 

safety. 112 
Lard. 369 

Latent heat. 20. 152, 160 
Laundry. 78, 141 

chemistry of. 78 

equipment cost of. 510 

establishment of, 495 

work, 141, 174. 570 
Laws of expenditure. Dr. Engel's, 

419 
Lead pipes, 15 
Leaven. 47 

Leaving materials. 'M:\, 374 
Ledance cell. 122 
Ledger, use of, 448 
Left-overs, use of. .318. :>51 
Liiritimate bargains, 499 
Legumes, 267 
Legumin, 54 
Lemon ice, 382 
Levulose, 41 
Life insurance, 440 
Lifp, standards of. 410 
Lifting patient, 612, 615, 624 
Lighting. 108 

methods of, 282 

of sick-room. 6()2 
Lightning cake, 389 
Lime, 118 

quick. 119 

slaked. 119 

soap, 75 

test, 136 

water, 119 
Linen, bed, 518 

fibres, structure of, 78 

table, 516 
Litmus for testing, 68 
Liver, beef. 542 
Living, style of. 413 
Location of cuts of beef, 533 

M 

Maltose, 41 

Marketing, 527 

Match, chemistry of. 29 

Materials of kitchen utensils, 512 

Matter, conservation of, 31 

Mattresses, 601 

changing, 617 

protecting, 608 
^L^yonnaise dressing, 400 
Meals, serving, 621 
Measles, 595 

German, .595 
Measures, 367 
Measuring glasses. 641 
Meat.s. 57. 247, 250, 394 

boiled, 393 



Meats, braised, 252 

choice of, 247 

cost of, 248 

effect of temperature on, 57, 369 

.iudging, 249 

left-overs, 309 

loaf, 395 

preparation of, 251 

stew, 394 

supply of, 528 

timbals. 395 

toughness of, 249 
Medicines, giving of, 640 
Meningitis. 598 
Menu making, 346, 358, 575 
Menus for special occasions, 358 

planning. 321 
Mercerization, 80 
Meringues, 385 
Mildew, 89 
Milk. 218. 559 

composition of, 219 

concentrated, 223 

cooking in, 222 

skimmed, 224 

sour, 220 

.sugar, 41 

supply, source of, 560 

use of, 218 
Mineral matter, 60 

water, 193 
Molasses, 40 

with soda. 292 
Molecules, 127, 129 
Money, use of. 404 
Monthlv budgets, 572 
Mortar, 120 

IMother, province of, 593 
Mousse, or Parfait, .382 
Mouth, care of. 625 

waslies. 626 
Muffins. 387 
Mumps, .594 

Muscle arrangement uf beef, 531 
Mushes, 275 

corn meal, 396 
Mustard plasters, 652 
Mutt(m, 250, 548 

cuts of, 549 

N 

Nnjikins, 521 

Natural gas. 115 

Neck, use of. 5:>5 

Needs vs. wants. 411 

Neutralizing acidity of milk, 221 

Night gown, clianying. <!1(> 

Night nursing. G(Mi 

Nitric acid poisoning, 707 

Nitrogen, 24 

for i)Ianls, 126 

properties of, 24 

use of, 53 



Note. — For pcuje niinihcrs, .see foot of pages. 



730 



INDEX 



Nitrogonous foods, 53 

foods, cooking of, 54 
Noodles, 244 

Norwegian cooking box, ISO, 330 
Nose bleed, 705 

foreign bodies in. 706 
Nnrse, caro of. (JiKj 

clothing of. (50G 

duties of. 593 

night, 606 
Nursing the baby, 6S6 
Nuts. .300 

as food, 210 



01)jectious to domestic service, 4S4 

Obstetrics, 674 

Oil stoves, 35, 320 

Oils, 00 

Olive oil, .309 

Omelets. 3S4 

Operating room. 660 

expenses. 426 

table. 060 
Operations at home, 667 

lirecautions when ov(»r, 672 

preparation for, OOS 
Opium poisoning, 708 
Ordering by te]ei)li<>ne, 351 

time for, .3.51, .528 
Order in housework, 4~'] 
Organizations of household labor, 

473 
Oriental rugs, 524 
Oven, temperature of, 303, 372 

thermometer. 302 
Ovens, first. ITS 
Oxalic acid poisoning, 707 
Oxide of calcium, US 
Oxides. 10 
Oxygen in air, IS. 167 



Paint, removal of, 00 
Paraffin. .34 

in washing, 144 
Parfait, .3S2 
Parsnips, 360 

I'astenrization of milk, 221 
Pastry. 207. .300 
I'atient, amusing, 623 

care of, 005 

lifting. 612. 624 
Peas, 268, 360 
Peat, 23 
Peptones, 50 
Perishable supplies. 503 
I'eroxide of hydrogen. OS 
Personal expenses, classiticatiou, 458 

freedom of maid, 489 
Petroleum, .34 
Phosphates, 36 
Pies, 297 



Pillows, 620 

Pills, 642 

Plain cakes, 290, .380 

Planning meals, 310 

menus, .331 

work, 476 
Plant fertilizers, 125 

foods, 124 
Plants, 124 

!h)US(>, 124 
Pl.ister, 120 
Pneumonia. 507 

.symi)toms of. .507 
Poached eggs, 3.3S 
Poisoning, blood, 703, 704 
Poisons, 707 
Popovcrs. 245 
Pork, 5.50 
Potash. 70 

ciiustic. 70 
Potatoes, 260. 360, 308 

baked, .307 

boiled. 200, .307 

croquettes, 308 

loss in prep.-iring, .307 

mashed. .307 

ricod. 307 

stuffed, on half shell, 398 

with meat. 270 
Poultices. 651 

applying, 651 

linseed, 651 

mustard, 652 

starch, 652 
Poultry, 259 

care in selecting. .551 

methods of plucking, 552 

tests for, 552 
Powders, giving. 042 
Prepared food, 318 
Preserve jars, 213 
I'reserving eggs, 2.39 

food. 208 

in sugar, 212 
Pressure of air, 23, 168 
, relieving, 620 
Prevention of bed sores. 617 
Principle of contrast. 306 
Production, detinltion of, 4<ll 
Profession of house keeping, 40." 
Program for class study. 165, ;!5!! 

.360, 500 
Promotion for hel])er, 483 
Proportions, table of, 386, 300 
Proteids, 54 

digestion of, 59 
Proteins, 216, 369 
Ptyaliu, 44 
I'uilding, cottage, 301 

fruit, 3S0 

snow. 380 
I'Tiffs, pastry, 296, 385 
I'ulse, 6.36 

counting the, 637 



Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



731 



10 



INDEX 



Pulses or legumes, 1^07 
Pump, 23 

force, 24 

suction, 25 

Q 

Quarantine. 064 
Quicli lime. 110 
Questions (see "test") 

R 

Ragouts or stews. :10T 

Railroad securities, 440 

Rain water. 121 

Rancid butter, 229 

Ranges, ISl 

Rarebit, Welsh, 378 

Ration. 317 

Raw foods, composilion of, 369 

Real estate loans, 441 

Receipts, 376 

Recipes, G91 

Records, keeping-. 63S 

Refrifierator. 205 

care of. 2<i0 
Refuse, 31 7 
Regular income, 415 
Relapse, cause of. 621 
Remnants, value of. 504 
Rent. 421 
Rental. 425 

Reorganization of the home. 490 
Respiration, or breathing, 638 

artificial, 702 

chart. 638 
Rih roasts. 536 
Ribs of beef, 535 

use of, 535 
Rice. 276. 396 

croquettes, 396 
Rinsing clothes, 81 
Rissoles. .308 
Roasts, small. 394, 540 
Roasting. 190, 251, 368 
Rochelle salt. 107 
Rolls. 289, 391 
Rosin soap, 147 
Round, use of, 539 
Routine, 476 
Riibber air cushion, 621 

sheet. 608 
Rugs. .523 

kinds of. 518 
Pump, use of. 5.39 
Rust, iron, 92, 174 



Safe interest, 441 
Safet.v lamps. 112 
Salads, 274. .308 

French dressing for, 400 
Saleratus, 105 



Salmis or stews, 307 
Salt, 69, 172 
common, 60 
Rochelle, 107 
Salt meats. 252 

to d(>velop flavor, .312 
Saturated solution, 13 
Sauce, brown, 227, 378 

white, 226, 377 

white fish. 215 
Sausages, 551 
Sauteing, 368 
Saving, percentage in, 562 

wavs of. 4.39 
Scalds, 700 
Scales, kitchen. 311 
Scalloi)s. ,308 
Scarlet fever, 596 
Schedul(> of work, .591 
Scultelus bandages. 714 
Seasons, food varied with, 353 
Securities, railroad, 440 
Selecting beef. 5.30 
Self control, necessity for. 475 
Servant problem. .584 
Servant, ignorance of. 485 

irresponsibility of. 485 
Service, domestic. 479. ,583 
Serving. 357 

dainty. 621. 690 
Shank, use of. 540 
Shaping dough. 289 
Sheet, changing, 610 

draw. 607 

rubber. 608 

size of. 518 
Sheeting, kinds of, 518 
Sherbet. 382 
Sliin. the. .537 
Shock, 701 
Shortcake, 387 
Shortening. 296. 374 
Short process bread, 286 
Sick room. 601 

airing. 604 

care of. 601 

choice of. 601 

don'ts, 6116 

dusting. 603 

floor of. 603 

furnishing of. 601 

lighting of. 602 

methods. 633 

sweeping. 603 

temperature of, 605 

ventilation of, 699 
' Silence cloth. .521 
Silver ))()lish. 101, 137 

suliihide. HO 
Sina])isms. mustard plaster, 652 
Sirloin, location of, 5.38 
Skin, artiflcial, 619 

care of. 619 
Slings, 705 



Note. — For paac niinihcrs, sec foot of pages. 



732 



INDEX 



11 



Smallpox. 595 
Small wastes, 429 
Smoke. ;>4 

asphyxiation. 703 
nature of, 110 
Smyrna riiffs. !524 
Soakinc: clothes. 80 
Soap. 69, 172 

action of. 71 

composition of, 71 

kinds of. 72 
lime. 75 
making. 146 

rosin, 147 

solution. S3 

with hard water. 75 
Soda. 105 

ash. 7.3 

caustic. 70 

cooking. 1<I5 

washing. 73 

with acids. 290 

with cream ol tartar, 291 

with molass.^s. 292 

with sour milk, 292 
Soft coal. ISl 
Softening: water. 74, 143 
Solubility of water, 13 
Solution saturated, 13 
Solvents, 1.34 
Souffles. .308. 385 
Soup. 58, 307 

names of. 256 

stock, 256, .376 

vegetable. 272 
Sour milk with soda, 292 
Specialtv stor.-s, ."n.^ 
Spices. .313 

Sponge cake, 242, 290, .385 
Spongy mixtures. 246 
Spontaneous combustion, 100 
Sprains, 705 
Stains, 82 

bluing, 88 

ooCf(>e, 89 

fruit, 89 

removal of. ,87 

vaseline. 89 
Stale bread, use of, .391 
Standards, differing, 412 

of life, 410 

of (|ualitv of goods, 403 

of work, established, 487, 491 
Starch. 41, 137 

ch.-inged to sugar, 43 

roiuersion of, 43 

cooking of, 45, .3f)9 

digestion of, 43, 45 

tests foi'. 1.37 

source of. 42 

nncdoked. 86 
Starching clothes. 86 
Steaks, sclcclion of, .393, 541 
Steam cooker, 188, 203 



Sleamiug. .368 
Slcrilized water. 671 
Sterilij^ing dressings, 670 

the hands, 672 
Stewing, 2()0. .368 
Stews. 3(17, 394 

cut -for, 542 
Sticking piece, location of, 536 
Still. 12 

Stora'ge. 500, 561 
cold. 204 

re(piirenients, ,502 
Stoves, ancient, 177 
gas. 1,85 
gasoline. 187 
kerosene, 187 
modern, 181 
Stubs of check book, 464 
Stutling. 262 
Style of living. 413 
Sucrose, 40 
Sugar, 40 
as flavoring, .303 
brown, 40 
cane, 40 
digestion of, 43 
fruit, 41 
grape, 41 
maple, 40 
milk. 41 
starch, 41 
Sulphur candle, 97 

dioxide, 96 
Suliihurous acid gas, 133 
Sujiper. 321 
Supi>lies, bnving, 499 
lists of. .506 
lK'risli;il)l('. 503 
Suppositories. 644 
Surgical ojierations. 667 
Sweeping. 603 
S\\eetbreads. 544 
Symiitoms of diseases, 594 
Syncope or fainting, 700 
Svrup. 399 

caramel, .398 
System of accounts, 444 
of work, .590 
value of, 319 



Table, bedside, 603 
Table linen, 516 

examples of, 521 

grades of. 519 

kinds of. .520 

price of, 521 

size of. 521 
Table of common substances, 1,30 

of contagious diseases, .594 

of elements. 12.S 

of cuts of beef, 545 

of proportions, doiisrbs, 386, 300 

of temperatures, 372 



Note. — For page numbers, sec foot of pages. 



733 



12 



INDEX 



Tablo service, 357 

time of cookiiiff. 372 
Tiil)les, kitelioii, 51." 
Tannic acid. 55 
Tapestry carpets, 522 
'I'arnish, TOO 
Tea, making, 202, 376 
Teeth, care for, 625 
Telephone, use for buying, 527 
Temperature, 635 

for cooking eggs, 237 

high, 6:!5 

in cooking, 190, 370, 371, 372 

normal, 635 

of boiling point, 20 

of oven, .303 

of sick room, 605 

records, 636 

siib-noi-mal. 6.35 

taking. Ilie. 634 

testing fat, 254 

vital. :5S 
Tenderloin. 5.'!S 
Test questions. 64. 103. 231 278' 323 

460. .525, .564, 6.55, 716 
Tests. 1.35 

for poultry. 552 

.sample. 1.3S 
Testing by comparison. 131 

colors. 12!) 
Theoretical division of income, 415 
Thein. 55 
Thermometer, 20 

ba-th, 62!) 

clinical.- 633 

oven. .302 

use of. 1,54 
Thickening, methods of. 377 

materials. 373 
Timbales. 244 
Time of cooking, .370 
Time table for cooking, 372 
Tongue, beef, .543 
Tougji meat. 251 

Tourniquet (to stop bleeding), 704 
Transmission of heat. 19i> 
Tripe. 544 
Tuberculosis, 6.59 
Turning patient. 611 
Turni))s, composition of, 369 
Typhoid fever, .597 



IT 



Use of money. 404 

Utensils. adapta!)ilily of. 311 

aluminnm. 513 

buying, .5<H 

choic(> of. 19S 

estimate of kitchen, .506 

for canning, 21:! 

iron, 515 

kitchen, .507 

materials for kitchen. 512 



Value of classification, 41.3 

of individual home, 592 
Values, estimate of, 406 

real, 416 
Vapor, water, 25 
Variety in foods. 305 
Varnisli stains, !);) 
Vaselene, 34 
Vaseline, 34 

Stains. S9 
Veal bob, 546 

cuts of, 547 

season of. 546 
Vegetable left-overs, 309 

soups, 272 
Vegetables, 263, .396 

classification of. 265 

combinations of. 270 

composition of, 263 

cooking. 270 

creamed. 273 

digestibility of. 26S. 272 

dried. 265 

how to cook, 377 

mashed. 273 

l)repa ration of. 271 

prices of. 557 

quantity for serving, 558 

season of, 556 

selecting. ,558 

strongly flavored, 265 

wilted, 2<i7 

young, 267 
Ventilation. 23. 604 

of sleeping rooms, 26 

window. 604 
Vital temperature, .38 
Voltaic cell. 121 
Vouchers, 466 

W 

Wadding ring, 620 

Waffles, 3SS 

Wage of helper. 428 

Wages of domestic helper, 483 

Wiishing colored goods, 82 

Iiowders, l.",7. 173 

soda. 73 

soda, use of, 149 

woolens, 82 
Waste, 317 

of money in food, 4.31 

sources of, 4.32 
Wastes, small, 429 
Water, S, 22, 141, 165 

as temperature regulator, 21 

lioiling point of, 19 

bread, 4!) 

conuiosilion of, 16 

distilled, 10 

effect of freezing, 21 

effect of heating, 19 



Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



734 



INDEX 



13 



Wator. effect on load, IG 

effect oil metals. 14 

filtered, 15 

ilavor of. 194 

ftas. 114. 15!) 

hard, 15. 74, 142, 173 

lieat, absorption of, 21 

impurities in, 141 

impnrities in, 142 

lime, 119 

manufacturing, 167 

mineral, 193 

natural. 10 

of crystallization. 10. 1G5 

permanent hardness, 74 

rain. 12 

softening, 36, 73, 143 

solubility of, 13 
Wealth expander, office of. 403 
Weights and measures. 307 
Weight of beef, 534 



Welsh rarebit. 37<S 

Wlieat flour, composition of, 284. .369 

White sauce, 226, 228, 373, 377 , 

Whitewash. 121 

Whiting. 101 

Windpipe, foreign bodies in, 706 

Wood as fuel, 179, 326 

Wooden ware, 513 

Wool tibre.s, structures of, 78 

Work by hour, 429, 491, 586 

schedule of. 491 

standards of. 427 
Worrv. harm of. 427 
Wounds, 703 



Yeast. 47. 282 
amount of, 286 
cakes, 283 
doughs, tiible of, 39C' 



Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 



735 



COMPLETE COURSE IN HOME ECONOMICS 

This course covers, systematically, in an interesting and practical way, the new 
"Profession of Home-making" and "Art of Right Living." It is divided into forty 
lesson pamphlets of fifty to one hundred pages each. 



(1) 
(3) 
(5) 
(7) 



REGULAR ORDER IN WHICH 

FOOD SUBJECTS 
Chemistry of the Household 



Parts I, II, III. 
Principles of Cookery 

Parts I. II, III, IV. 
Food and Dietetics 

Parts I, II, III, IV. 
Household Management 

Parts I, II, III, IV. 

HOUSEHOLD ART 

(9) The House — Its Plan, Deco- 
ration and Caro, I, II, III. 
(10) Textiles and Clothing 
Parts I, II, III. 

PARTIAL LIST 

ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M. 

Professor of Household Science, 

University of Illinois 
S. MARIA ELLIOTT 

instructor in Home Economics, 

Simmons College, Boston 
BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. M. 

Professor of Home Economics, 

University of Vermont 
KATE HEINZ WATSON 

Formerly Instructor Lewis Insti- 
tute, Chicago 
MARGARET E. DODD, S. B. 

GradiiateMass. Inst, of Technology 
ANNA BARROWS 

Teacher of Cookery, Columbia 

University, Director Chautauqua 

School of Cookery 



THE LESSONS ARE TAKEN 

HEALTH SUBJECTS 
(2) Household Bacteriology 

Parts I, II, III. 
(4) Household Hygiene 

Parts I, II, III. 
(6) Personal Hygiene 

Parts I, II, III, IV. 
(8) Home Care of the Sick 

Parts I, II, III. 

CHILDREN 

(11) Care of Children 

Parts I. II, III. 

(12) Study of Child Life 

Parts I, II, III. 

OF INSTRUCTORS 

ALFRED C. COTTON, A. M., M. D. 
Proiessor Diseases of Children, 
Rush Medical College, University 
of Chicago 

ALICE PELOUBET NORTON,M.A. 
Assistant Professor of Home Eco- 
nomics, University of Chicago 

MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE 
Editor of "The Mothers' Magazine" 

AMY ELIZABETH POPE 

Instructor in Nursing, Presby- 
terian Hospital, N. Y. City 

CHARLOTTE M. GIBBS, A. B. 
Director of Household Art, Uni- 
versity of Illinois 

MAURICE Le BOSQUET, S. B. 
Director American School of Home 
Economics, Cliicago 



BOARD OF 

Mrs. a. COURTENAY NEVILLE 
President of the Board; First Chair- 
man Home Economics Committee, 
G. F. W. C. 

Mrs. ELLEN M. HENROTIN 

Organizer and Honorary President 
General Federation Women's Clubs 

Mrs. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF 
President National Congress of 
Mothers 

Mrs. LINDA HULL LARNED 
Past President National Household 
Economics Association 

Miss ALICE RAVENHILL 

Commissioner of the British Gov- 
ernment on Domestic Science in 
the United States 



TRUSTEES 

Mrs. MARY HINMAN ABEL 

Editor "Journal of Home Eco- 
nomics" ; Author U. S. Government 
Bulletins 

Miss MARIA PARLOA 

Founder of the Original Cooking 
School in Boston; Author, etc. 

Mrs. J. A. KIMBERLY 

Vice-President of National House- 
hold Economics Association 

Mrs. JOHN HOODLESS 

Government Supt. of Domestic 
Science of the Province of Ontario 

Mrs. WALTER McNAB MILLER 
Chairman of the Food-Sauitatign 
Committee, G. F. W. C. 



736 



